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Reading Section
THE DEVELOPMENT OF REFRIGERATION Cold storage, or refrigeration, is keeping food at temperatures between 32 and 45 degrees F in order to delay the growth of microorganisms—bacteria, molds, and yeast— that cause food to spoil. Refrigeration produces few changes in food, so meats, fish, eggs, milk, fruits, and vegetables keep their original flavor, color, and nutrition. Before artificial refrigeration was invented, people stored perishable food with ice or snow to lengthen its storage time. Preserving food by keeping it in an ice-filled pit is a 4,000-year-old art. Cold storage areas were built in basements, cellars, or caves, lined with wood or straw, and packed with ice. The ice was transported from mountains, or harvested from local lakes or rivers, and delivered in large blocks to homes and businesses. Artificial refrigeration is the process of removing heat from a substance, container, or enclosed area, to lower its temperature. The heat is moved from the inside of the container to the outside. A refrigerator uses the evaporation of a volatile liquid, or refrigerant, to absorb heat. In most types of refrigerators, the refrigerant is compressed, pumped through a pipe, and allowed to vaporize. As the liquid turns to vapor, it loses heat and gets colder because the molecules of vapor use energy to leave the liquid. The molecules left behind have less energy and so the liquid becomes colder. Thus, the air inside the refrigerator is chilled. Scientists and inventors from around the world developed artificial refrigeration during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. (1) William Cullen demonstrated artificial refrigeration in Scotland in 1748, when he let ethyl ether boil into a partial vacuum. In 1805, American inventor Oliver Evans designed the first refrigeration machine that used vapor instead of liquid. (2) In 1842, physician John Gorrie used Evans’s design to create an air-cooling apparatus to treat yellow-fever patients in a Florida hospital. (3) Gorrie later left his medical practice and experimented with ice making, and in 1851 he was granted the first U.S. patent for mechanical refrigeration. (4) In the same year, an Australian printer, James Harrison, built an ether refrigerator after noticing that when he cleaned his type with ether it became very cold as the ether evaporated. Five years later, Harrison introduced vapor-compression refrigeration to the brewing and meatpacking industries. Brewing was the first industry in the United States to use mechanical refrigeration extensively, and in the 1870s, commercial refrigeration was primarily directed at breweries. German-born Adolphus Busch was the first to use artificial refrigeration at his brewery in St. Louis. Before refrigeration, brewers stored their beer in caves, and production was constrained by the amount of available cave space. Brewing was strictly a local business, since beer was highly perishable and shipping it any distance would result in spoilage. Busch solved the storage problem with the commercial vapor-compression refrigerator. He solved he shipping problem with the newly invented refrigerated railcar, which was insulated with ice bunkers in each end. Air came in on the top, passed through the bunkers, and circulated through the car by gravity. In solving Busch’s spoilage and storage problems, refrigeration also revolutionized an entire industry. By 1891, nearly every brewery was equipped with mechanical refrigerating machines. The refrigerators of today rely on the same basic principle of cooling caused by the rapid evaporation and expansion of gases. Until 1929, refrigerators used toxic gases— ammonia, methyl chloride, and sulfur dioxide—as refrigerants. After those gases accidentally killed several people, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) became the standard refrigerant. However, they were found to be harmful to the earth’s ozone layer, so refrigerators now use a refrigerant called HFC 134a, which is less harmful to the ozone.
| 1. What is the main reason that people developed methods of refrigeration? |
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A. |
They needed to slow the natural processes that cause food to spoil. |
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B. |
They wanted to improve the flavor and nutritional value of food. |
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C. |
They wanted to expand the production of certain industries. |
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D. |
They needed a use for the ice that formed on lakes and rivers. |
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Explain: |
| 2. The word “perishable” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 3. What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about cold storage before the invention of artificial refrigeration? |
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A. |
It required a container made of metal or wood. |
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B. |
It was not a safe method of preserving meat. |
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C. |
It was dependent on a source of ice or snow. |
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D. |
It kept food cold for only about a week. |
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Explain: |
| 4. Artificial refrigeration involves all of the following processes EXCEPT ................ |
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A. |
the pumping of water vapor through a pipe |
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B. |
the evaporation of a volatile liquid |
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C. |
the transfer of heat from one place to another |
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D. |
the rapid expansion of certain gases |
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Explain: |
| 5. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. |
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A. |
Some gases expand rapidly and give off energy when they encounter a very cold liquid. |
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B. |
It takes a lot of energy to transform a liquid into a vapor, especially when the vapor loses heat. |
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C. |
When kinetic energy is changed to heat energy, liquid molecules turn into vapor molecules. |
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D. |
During evaporation, the vapor molecules use energy, and the liquid becomes colder. |
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Explain: |
| 6. According to the passage, who was the first person to use artificial refrigeration for a practical purpose? |
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Explain: |
| 7. The word “it” in paragraph 3 refers to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 8. Why does the author discuss the brewing industry in paragraph 4? |
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A. |
To show how refrigeration changed a whole industry |
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B. |
To compare cave storage with mechanical refrigeration |
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C. |
To praise the accomplishments of a prominent brewer |
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D. |
To describe the unique problems that brewers faced |
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Explain: |
| 9. The word “constrained” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 10. According to the passage, the first refrigerated railcar used what material as a cooling agent? |
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Explain: |
| 11. The word “toxic” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 12. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Gorrie′s basic principle of compressing a gas, and then sending it through radiating coils to cool it, is the one most often used in refrigerators today.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? |
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Explain: |
| 13. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is: “Methods of refrigeration have changed throughout history.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. |
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A. |
A refrigerator has an evaporator that makes the inside of the refrigerator cold. |
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B. |
William Cullen developed a method of artificial refrigeration in 1748. |
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C. |
Artificial refrigeration was made possible by the compression and evaporation of a volatile substance. |
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D. |
Practical uses of vapor-compression refrigeration were introduced in the nineteenth century. |
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E. |
CFCs have not been used as refrigerants since they were found to damage the earth's ozone layer. |
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F. |
People used to preserve food by packing it with ice or snow in cold storage areas. |
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Explain: |
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING Carbon dioxide and other naturally occurring gases in the earth’s atmosphere create a natural greenhouse effect by trapping and absorbing solar radiation. These gases act as a blanket and keep the planet warm enough for life to survive and flourish. The warming of the earth is balanced by some of the heat escaping from the atmosphere back into space. Without this compensating flow of heat out of the system, the temperature of the earth’s surface and its atmosphere would rise steadily. Scientists are increasingly concerned about a human-driven greenhouse effect resulting from a rise in atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping greenhouse gases. The man-made greenhouse effect is the exhalation of industrial civilization. A major contributing factor is the burning of large amounts of fossil fuels—coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another is the destruction of the world’s forests, which reduces the amount of carbon dioxide converted to oxygen by plants. Emissions of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons. nitrous oxide, and methane from human activities will enhance the greenhouse effect, causing the earth’s surface to become warmer. The main greenhouse gas, water vapor, will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it. There is agreement within the scientific community that the buildup of greenhouse gases is already causing the earth’s average surface temperature to rise. This is changing global climate at an unusually fast rate. According to the World Meteorological Organization, the earth’s average temperature climbed about 1 degree F in the past century, and nine of the ten warmest years on record have occurred since 1990. A United Nations panel has predicted that average global temperatures could rise as much as 10.5 degrees F during the next century as heat-trapping gases from human industry accumulate in the atmosphere. What are the potential impacts of an enhanced greenhouse effect? According to estimates by an international committee, North American climatic zones could shift northward by as much as 550 kilometers (340 miles). Such a change in climate would likely affect all sectors of society. In some areas, heat and moisture stress would cut crop yields, and traditional farming practices would have to change. For example, in the North American grain belt, higher temperatures and more frequent drought during the growing season might require farmers to switch from corn to wheat and to use more water for irrigation. Global warming may also cause a rise in sea level by melting polar ice caps. A rise in sea level would accelerate coastal erosion and inundate islands and low-lying coastal plains, some of which are densely populated. Millions of acres of coastal farmlands would be covered by water. Furthermore, the warming of seawater will cause the water to expand, thus adding to the potential danger. Global warming has already left its fingerprint on the natural world. Two research teams recently reviewed hundreds of published papers that tracked changes in the range and behavior of plant and animal species, and they found ample evidence of plants blooming and birds nesting earlier in the spring. Both teams concluded that rising global temperatures are shifting the ranges of hundreds of species—thus climatic zones—northward. These studies are hard evidence that the natural world is already responding dramatically to climate change, even though the change has just begun. If global warming trends continue, changes in the environment will have an enormous impact on world biology. Birds especially play a critical role in the environment by pollinating plants, dispersing seeds, and controlling insect populations; thus, changes in their populations will reverberate throughout the ecosystems they inhabit.
| 14. According to the passage, how do carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases affect the earth-atmosphere system? |
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A. |
They collect solar radiation that warms the earth's surface. |
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B. |
They create the conditions for new forms of life to emerge. |
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C. |
They decrease the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. |
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D. |
They cause heat to flow from the atmosphere into space. |
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Explain: |
| 15. All of the following are contributing factors to global warming EXCEPT ................ |
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the conversion of carbon dioxide to oxygen |
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B. |
the loss of forest lands |
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C. |
the burning of coal and petroleum |
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D. |
the buildup of water vapor in the atmosphere |
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Explain: |
| 16. The word “enhance” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 17. What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about global climate change? |
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It is difficult to predict the effects of climate change over the next century. |
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Climate change is likely to continue as long as heat-trapping gases accumulate. |
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C. |
Climate change will have both positive and negative effects on human society. |
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D. |
International organizations have been studying climate change only since 1990. |
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Explain: |
| 18. According to paragraph 4, what is one effect that climate change could have on agriculture in North America? |
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A. |
Less water available for irrigating crops |
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B. |
Movement of farms to the northernmost regions |
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C. |
Changes in the crops that farmers can grow |
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D. |
Return to more traditional methods of farming |
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Explain: |
| 19. The word “inundate” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 20. Why does the author use the word “fingerprint” in paragraph 6? |
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To describe a method used by two research teams |
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B. |
To introduce conclusive evidence of global warming |
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C. |
To suggest that people do not cause global warming |
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D. |
To show that hundreds of fingerprints were examined |
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Explain: |
| 21. The word “they” in paragraph 6 refers to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 22. The word “hard” in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 23. What evidence does the author give that climatic zones have shifted northward? |
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A. |
Birds no longer pollinate plants or control insect populations. |
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B. |
Solar radiation escapes from the atmosphere back into space. |
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C. |
Plants bloom and birds build nests earlier in the spring. |
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D. |
The water in the ocean expands as it gets warmer. |
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Explain: |
| 24. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “The combination of melting ice caps with the expansion of water could raise the sea level several centimeters by the year 2100.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? |
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Explain: |
| 25. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is: “Scientists are concerned about the greenhouse effect and its role in global warming.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. |
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A. |
Global warming could result in job loss for millions of farmers in coastal areas. |
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B. |
Global warming will alter the range and behavior of plants and animals, changing the balance of ecosystems. |
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C. |
Nine of the ten warmest years on record have occurred since 1990. |
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D. |
A rise in atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases is causing the earth's surface to become warmer. |
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E. |
Some scientists think the temperature trend indicates man-made global warming, while others believe it is natural climate variability. |
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F. |
A rising sea level and shifts in climatic zones are probable effects of global warming. |
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Explain: |
ESTUARIES Fresh water from land enters the ocean through rivers, streams, and groundwater-flowing through valleys. These valleys that channel fresh water from land to the salty ocean, which range from extremely narrow stream-cut channels to remarkably broad lagoons behind long barrier islands, are called estuaries. A number of types of estuaries are commercially vital. Many commercially important estuaries are the mouths of major rivers. The powerful flow of water in major rivers maintains channels that are deep enough for navigation by ocean-bound vessels, and the rivers themselves provide transportation of goods to points farther inland. In addition, estuaries formed as a result of tectonic or glacial activity are sometimes sufficiently deep to provide ports for oceangoing vessels. The types of estuaries that are not viable as ports-of-call for ocean commerce are those that are not wide enough, not deep enough, and not powerful enough to prevent the buildup of sediment. Estuary systems, which vary to reject the geology of the coasts where they are found, can be broadly categorized as one of two different types. One type of estuary system is the type that is found in flooded coastal plains, the broad land areas that extend out to the continental shelves, on the Atlantic coasts of North and South America, Europe, and Africa, for example. The other category of estuary system encompasses the mountainous coasts, with their rugged topography, such as those found along the Pacific coasts of North and South America. Today, much of the eastern coast of the United States is a flooded coastal plain. During the last ice age, much of what is today the submerged continental shelf was exposed as an extended part of the continent. Intricate river systems composed of main rivers and their tributaries cut valleys across the plains to the edge of the shelf, where they released the fresh water that they carried into the ocean. Then, as the ice melted at the end of the ice age, rising waters extended inland over the lower areas, creating today’s broad drowned river valleys. On today’s flooded coastal plains, the water is comparatively shallow and huge amounts of sand and sediment are deposited. (1)These conditions foster the growth of extensive long and narrow offshore deposits, many of which are exposed above the water as sandspits or barrier islands. (2)These Deposits are constantly being reshaped, sometimes extremely slowly and sometimes quite rapidly, by the forces of water and wind. (3)It is common along flooded coastal plains for drowned river valleys to empty into lagoons that have been created behind the sandspits and barrier islands rather than emptying directly into the ocean. (4)These lagoons support vigorous biological activity inasmuch as they are shallow, which causes them to heat up quickly, and they are fed by a constant inflow of nutrient-rich sediments. Unlike the flooded coastal plains, the mountainous coasts have a more rugged and irregular topography with deeper coastal waters. There is less sand and sediment, and external systems of barrier islands are not as pervasive as they are on flooded coastal plains because the mountainous topography blocks the flow of sediments to the coast and because the deeper ocean water inhibits the growth of barrier islands, and without the protection of barrier beaches, mountainous coasts are more exposed to direct attack by the erosive forces of waves. Different geological processes contribute to the rugged topography along mountain coasts. The tectonic activity that creates the mountains along a mountainous coast can cause large blocks of the Earth's crust tc fall below sea level; San Francisco Bay in California and the Strait of Juan de Fuca in Washington state in the north formed in this way. In the northern latitudes, coastal fjords were created as glaciers cut impressive u-shaped valleys through mountains and now carry fresh water from the land to the ocean.
| 26. The phrase “commercially vital” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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B. |
the essence of professionality |
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D. |
by-products of business |
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Explain: |
| 27. The word “viable” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 28. The passage indicates that all of the following are estuaries with commercial potential as ports of call EXCEPT ................ |
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estuaries at the mouths of powerful rivers |
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B. |
estuaries formed from tectonic activity |
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C. |
estuaries formed by glaciers |
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D. |
estuaries on flooded coastal plains |
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Explain: |
| 29. The word “Intricate” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 30. According to the passage, drowned river valleys ................ |
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B. |
are covered with shallow water |
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C. |
are covered with deep water |
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D. |
are land areas with rivers cutting through |
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Explain: |
| 31. The word “foster” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 32. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Some changes to the deposits can take place gradually over decades, while other changes can be quite radical changes in a period of only a few hours as the result of major storm activity.” can be added to paragraph 4. Where would the sentence best fit? |
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Explain: |
| 33. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. |
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A. |
The flow of sediments into lagoons causes biological activity, which in turn causes the lagoons to heat up. |
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B. |
Biological activity contributes to the formation of lagoons by heating them up and providing a source of food. |
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C. |
Lagoons become more and more shallow as they heat up and flow into the ocean. |
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D. |
A lot of life exists in lagoons for two reasons: the low water level and the steady source of new residue. |
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Explain: |
| 34. The author begins paragraph 5 with the phrase “Unlike the flooded coastal plains” in order to ................ |
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A. |
indicate that the discussion is moving from one type of estuary system to the other |
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show that flooded coastal plains and mountainous coasts have some similarities in spite of their differences |
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C. |
clarify the ideas of flooded coastal plains that were previously presented |
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D. |
indicate that a thorough discussion of flooded coastal plains follows |
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Explain: |
| 35. The phrase “not as pervasive as” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 36. The phrase “this way” in paragraph 5 refers to ................ |
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A. |
large blocks of crust sinking as a result of tectonic activity |
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B. |
the sea level rising along the mountainous coast |
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C. |
geological processes contributing to rugged topography |
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D. |
glaciers cutting valleys through mountains |
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Explain: |
| 37. It is implied in the passage that fjords ................ |
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A. |
were formed in the same way as the San Francisco Bay |
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B. |
are found throughout the world |
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C. |
have as much sediment as flooded coastal plains |
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D. |
are a type of mountainous estuary system |
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Explain: |
| 38. Choose FOUR phrases that describe the estuary systems on flooded coastal plains |
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Have smaller amounts of deposits |
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B. |
Are never commercially viable |
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C. |
Are protected by barrier beaches |
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D. |
Have huge amounts of deposits |
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E. |
Were created on part of a submerged continent |
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F. |
Are covered with shallow water |
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G. |
Were created by tectonic or glacial activity |
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H. |
Lead into deeper bodies of water |
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I. |
Are not protected by barrier beaches |
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G. |
Are the primary way that fresh water is channeled to the ocean |
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Explain: |
| 39. Choose FOUR phrases that describe the estuary systems on mountainous coasts |
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Are never commercially viable |
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B. |
Are not protected by barrier beaches |
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C. |
Are protected by barrier beaches |
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D. |
Are the primary way that fresh water is channeled to the ocean |
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E. |
Were created by tectonic or glacial activity |
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F. |
Have smaller amounts of deposits |
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G. |
Were created on part of a submerged continent |
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H. |
Have huge amounts of deposits |
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I. |
Are covered with shallow water |
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G. |
Lead into deeper bodies of water |
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Explain: |
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE TIDES Tides are a natural phenomenon involving the alternating rise and fall in the earth’s large bodies of water caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun. The combination of these two variable forces produces the complex recurrent cycle of the tides. Tides may occur in both oceans and seas, to a limited extent in large lakes, the atmosphere, and, to a very minute degree, in the earth itself. The force that generates tides results from the interaction of two forces: the centrifugal force produced by the revolution of the earth around the center-of-gravity of the earth - moon system; and the gravitational attraction of the moon acting upon the earth’s waters. Although the moon is only 238,852 miles from the earth, compared with the sun’s much greater distance of 92,956,000 miles, the moon’s closer distance outranks its much smaller mass, and thus the moon’s tide-raising force is more than twice that of the sun. The tide-generating forces of the moon and sun ‘cause a maximum accumulation of the waters of the oceans at two opposite positions on the earth’s surface. At the same time, compensating amounts of water are drawn from all points 90 degrees away from these tidal bulges. As the earth rotates, a sequence of two high tides and two low tides is produced each day. Successive high tides occur on an average of 12.4 hours apart. High tide at any given location occurs when the moon is overhead and low tide when it is at either horizon. The highest and lowest levels of high tide, called spring tide and neap tide, each occur twice in every lunar month of about 27.5 days. A spring tide occurs at the new moon and at the full moon, when the moon and earth are lined up with the sun, and thus the moon’s pull is reinforced by the sun’s pull. At spring tide, the difference between high and low tides is the greatest. A neap tide, the lowest level of high tide, occurs when the sun-to- earth direction is at right angles to the moon-to-earth direction. When this happens, the gravitational forces of the moon and sun counteract each other: thus, the moon’s pull is at minimum strength, and the difference between high and low tides is the least. Spring and neap tides at any given location have a range of about 20 percent more or less, respectively, than the average high tide. The vertical range of tides—the difference between high and low—varies according to the size, surface shape, and bottom topography of the basin in which tidal movement occurs. In the open water of the central Pacific, the range is no more than about a foot; in the relatively small, shallow North Sea, it is about 12 feet. Along the narrow channel of the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, the difference between high and low tides may reach 45 feet under spring tide conditions—the world’s widest tidal range. At New Orleans, which is at the mouth of the Mississippi River, the periodic rise and fall of the tides varies with the river’s stage, being about ten inches at low stage and zero at high. In every case, actual high or low tide can vary considerably from the average. Several factors affect tidal ranges, including abrupt changes in atmospheric pressure or prolonged periods of extreme high or low pressure. (1) They are also influenced by the density and volume of seawater, variations in ocean-current velocities, earthquakes, and the growing or shrinking of the world’s glaciers. (2) In fact, any of these factors alone can alter sea level. (3) The greater and more rapid the change of water level, the greater the erosive effect of the tidal action, and thus in the amount of material transported and deposited on the shore. (4)
| 40. The word “recurrent” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to |
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Explain: |
| 41. According to the passage, the force that generates tides on the earth is |
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A. |
the same force that generates tides on the moon |
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B. |
the gravitational pull of the earth's core |
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C. |
a combination of gravity and centrifugal force |
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D. |
abrupt changes in atmospheric pressure |
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Explain: |
| 42. According to the passage, the moon |
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A. |
has a gravitational pull toward the sun |
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B. |
affects tides more than the sun does |
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C. |
is farther from the earth than the sun |
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D. |
has a greater mass than the sun |
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Explain: |
| 43. The word “bulges” in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to |
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Explain: |
| 44. What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about tides in different places on the earth? |
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A. |
High tide occurs at every location on the earth at the same time. |
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B. |
When it is high tide in some places, it is low tide in other places. |
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C. |
Some places have two high tides each day, but others have only one. |
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D. |
The time between high and low tides is the same in different places. |
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Explain: |
| 45. A spring tide occurs at the time of the lunar month when |
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A. |
the moon appears as a crescent or half-circle |
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B. |
the difference between high and low tides is the least |
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C. |
the moon's gravitational pull is at its strongest |
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D. |
the sun does not exert any gravitational force |
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Explain: |
| 46. The word “counteract” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to |
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Explain: |
| 47. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. |
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A. |
20 percent of both spring tides and neap tides always occur in the same location. |
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B. |
If the location of a spring tide is known, then a neap tide in the same location will be 20 percent less. |
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C. |
There has been a 20 percent change in the number of spring tides and neap tides that occur at certain locations. |
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D. |
Spring tides are 20 percent more, and neap tides 20 percent less, than the average high tide in a particular place. |
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Explain: |
| 48. The author mentions “the Bay of Fundy” in paragraph 5 in order to |
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A. |
compare the Bay of Fundy with larger bodies of water |
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B. |
explain why a narrow channel is dangerous to ships |
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C. |
give the most extreme example of a tidal range |
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D. |
show how rivers can affect the rise and fall of tides |
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Explain: |
| 49. The word prolonged in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to |
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Explain: |
| 50. All of the following are mentioned as influences on the vertical range of tides EXCEPT |
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A. |
increasing levels of pollution in the oceans |
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B. |
changes in the size of the world's glaciers |
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C. |
sudden changes in atmospheric pressure |
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D. |
the size and shape of the body of water |
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Explain: |
| 51. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Storm surges, such as the heaping up of ocean water by hurricane winds, are yet another factor.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? |
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| 52. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is: “Many factors influence the phenomenon of tides, the alternating rise and fall in the earth′s large bodies of water.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. |
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A. |
The stage of the Mississippi River determines the level of tides at New Orleans. |
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B. |
Tides occur in the earth's atmosphere and also in the earth itself. |
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The level of high tide varies throughout the lunar month. |
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Scientists have been studying the moon's influence on tides for several centuries. |
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The gravitational forces of the moon and the sun together produce the cycle of the tides. |
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F. |
The character of the basin and various environmental conditions affect the vertical range of tides. |
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Explain: |
PLATE TECTONICS According to the theory of plate tectonics, the upper portion of the Earth’s lithosphere, which contains the heavier oceanic and the lighter continental crusts, consists of a series of rigid plates that are in constant motion. This theory provides a cohesive model to explain the integrated actions of continental drift, seafloor spreading, and mountain formation. The Earth’s plates are estimated to have an average depth of approximately 60 miles (or 100 kilometers), but they are believed to vary considerably in size. Some are estimated to be continental or even hemispheric in size, while other are believed to be much smaller. Though the actual boundaries and sizes and shapes of the plates are not known for sure, it has been postulated that there are six major plates and somewhere around the same number of smaller ones. Most of the plates consist of both sial (continental) and sima (oceanic) crust. They are in constant movement, though they move at an extremely slow pace, and these movements cause frequent interactions between plates. At this time, scientists have identified three different types of boundaries between plates. At a divergent boundary, plates are moving away from each other. This type of boundary occurs at an oceanic ridge, where new material is being added to the seafloor from deeper within the Earth. Shallow earthquakes and underwater volcanoes are associated with this type of plate activity. At a convergent boundary, plates are moving toward each other and collide, causing vast folding and crumpling along the edges of the plates. In addition to the folding and crumpling, one of the plates slowly folds under the other. Though this subduction is slow, it can nonetheless be quite catastrophic as the crustal material of the submerging plate gradually melts into the fiery hot depths below. The area where subduction occurs is usually an area where the crust is relatively unstable and is characterized by numerous deep earthquakes and a significant amount of volcanic activity. The boundaries between convergent plates are generally found around the edges of ocean basins and are sometimes associated with deep ocean trenches. A third type of boundary is a transcurrent boundary, which involves two plates sliding past each other laterally, without the folding and crumpling that occurs at a convergent boundary. This third type of boundary is thought to be far less common than the other two types of boundaries. The concept of plate tectonics provides an understanding of the massive rearrangement of the Earth’s crust that has apparently taken place. It is now generally accepted that the single supercontinent known as Pangaea indeed existed, that Pangaea subsequently broke apart into two giant pieces, Gondwanaland in the south and Laurasia in the north, and that the continents attached to the various crustal plates separated and drifted in various directions. As the plates drifted, they may have diverged, which was associated with the spread of the seafloor, or they may have converged, which resulted in collision, subduction, and mountain building. (1) The majority of the Earth’s major mountain ranges are found in zones where plates converge. (2) The Himalayas, which are the world’s highest mountains, along with the central Asian mountains of varying heights associated with them, were formed by the crumpling and folding of two massive plates that collided at a convergent boundary. (3) The landmass that is today known as India was originally part of Gondwanaland, the giant supercontinent in the Southern Hemisphere, but it broke off from Gondwanaland approximately 200 million years ago and drifted north to collide with part of Laurasia, the giant supercontinent in the Northern Hemisphere, to create the world’s tallest mountains. (4)
| 53. The word “cohesive” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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| 54. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that ................ |
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there are most likely around 6 minor plates |
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some plates are relatively stationary |
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none of the plates has a depth of more than 100 kilometers |
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each of the plates has approximately the same dimensions |
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| 55. The word “postulated” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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| 56. The author uses the expression “At this time” at the beginning of paragraph 3 in order to indicate that ................ |
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more types of boundaries might be found in the future |
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B. |
interactions are currently occurring between plates |
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C. |
the major plates are all currently moving away from each other |
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D. |
all possible types of boundaries have already been located |
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| 57. The word “subduction” in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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| 58. According to the passage, subduction ................ |
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A. |
generally takes place in stable areas |
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D. |
causes one of the plates to sink and melt |
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| 59. The phrase “associated with” in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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| 60. It is NOT stated in paragraph 4 that it is generally accepted that ................ |
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A. |
Gondwanaland moved to the south and Laurasia moved to the north |
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B. |
the continents moved in various directions |
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C. |
the giant continent broke into parts |
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D. |
there used to be a giant continent |
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| 61. The word “drifted” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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| 62. The word “them” in paragraph 5 refers to ................ |
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D. |
central Asian mountains |
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| 63. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 5? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. |
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A. |
The world's tallest mountains used to be in India, but they broke off from India and drifted to the north. |
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B. |
Gondwanaland drifted north 200 million years ago to merge with Laurasia. |
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C. |
India was formed when a landmass from the Southern Hemisphere broke off and collided with a landmass in the Northern Hemisphere. |
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D. |
India was formed 200 million years ago when two giant supercontinents drifted north and collided. |
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| 64. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Mountain building is clearly explained through the concept of plate tectonics.” can be added to paragraph 5. Where would the sentence best fit? |
64
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| 65. Choose TWO phrases that describe the divergent boundary |
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A. |
Occurs when two plates remain stationary in relation to each other |
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B. |
Is the least common type of boundary |
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Occurs when plates moving toward each other do not collide |
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D. |
Occurs when plates move away from each other |
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E. |
Can result in the creation of mountains |
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F. |
Occurs when plates moving toward each other collide |
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G. |
Causes the continents to shift |
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H. |
Can result in the spreading of the seafloor |
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| 66. Choose TWO phrases that describe the convergent boundary |
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A. |
Can result in the spreading of the seafloor |
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B. |
Occurs when plates move away from each other |
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C. |
Occurs when two plates remain stationary in relation to each other |
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D. |
Occurs when plates moving toward each other do not collide |
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E. |
Occurs when plates moving toward each other collide |
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F. |
Causes the continents to shift |
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G. |
Is the least common type of boundary |
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H. |
Can result in the creation of mountains |
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Explain: |
| 67. Choose TWO phrases that describe the transcurrent boundary |
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A. |
Occurs when plates move away from each other |
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B. |
Occurs when plates moving toward each other do not collide |
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C. |
Occurs when plates moving toward each other collide |
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D. |
Can result in the creation of mountains |
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E. |
Causes the continents to shift |
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F. |
Can result in the spreading of the seafloor |
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G. |
Occurs when two plates remain stationary in relation to each other |
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H. |
Is the least common type of boundary |
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Explain: |
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