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Reading Section
THE DEVELOPMENT OF REFRIGERATION Cold storage, or refrigeration, is keeping food at temperatures between 32 and 45 degrees F in order to delay the growth of microorganisms—bacteria, molds, and yeast— that cause food to spoil. Refrigeration produces few changes in food, so meats, fish, eggs, milk, fruits, and vegetables keep their original flavor, color, and nutrition. Before artificial refrigeration was invented, people stored perishable food with ice or snow to lengthen its storage time. Preserving food by keeping it in an ice-filled pit is a 4,000-year-old art. Cold storage areas were built in basements, cellars, or caves, lined with wood or straw, and packed with ice. The ice was transported from mountains, or harvested from local lakes or rivers, and delivered in large blocks to homes and businesses. Artificial refrigeration is the process of removing heat from a substance, container, or enclosed area, to lower its temperature. The heat is moved from the inside of the container to the outside. A refrigerator uses the evaporation of a volatile liquid, or refrigerant, to absorb heat. In most types of refrigerators, the refrigerant is compressed, pumped through a pipe, and allowed to vaporize. As the liquid turns to vapor, it loses heat and gets colder because the molecules of vapor use energy to leave the liquid. The molecules left behind have less energy and so the liquid becomes colder. Thus, the air inside the refrigerator is chilled. Scientists and inventors from around the world developed artificial refrigeration during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. (1) William Cullen demonstrated artificial refrigeration in Scotland in 1748, when he let ethyl ether boil into a partial vacuum. In 1805, American inventor Oliver Evans designed the first refrigeration machine that used vapor instead of liquid. (2) In 1842, physician John Gorrie used Evans’s design to create an air-cooling apparatus to treat yellow-fever patients in a Florida hospital. (3) Gorrie later left his medical practice and experimented with ice making, and in 1851 he was granted the first U.S. patent for mechanical refrigeration. (4) In the same year, an Australian printer, James Harrison, built an ether refrigerator after noticing that when he cleaned his type with ether it became very cold as the ether evaporated. Five years later, Harrison introduced vapor-compression refrigeration to the brewing and meatpacking industries. Brewing was the first industry in the United States to use mechanical refrigeration extensively, and in the 1870s, commercial refrigeration was primarily directed at breweries. German-born Adolphus Busch was the first to use artificial refrigeration at his brewery in St. Louis. Before refrigeration, brewers stored their beer in caves, and production was constrained by the amount of available cave space. Brewing was strictly a local business, since beer was highly perishable and shipping it any distance would result in spoilage. Busch solved the storage problem with the commercial vapor-compression refrigerator. He solved he shipping problem with the newly invented refrigerated railcar, which was insulated with ice bunkers in each end. Air came in on the top, passed through the bunkers, and circulated through the car by gravity. In solving Busch’s spoilage and storage problems, refrigeration also revolutionized an entire industry. By 1891, nearly every brewery was equipped with mechanical refrigerating machines. The refrigerators of today rely on the same basic principle of cooling caused by the rapid evaporation and expansion of gases. Until 1929, refrigerators used toxic gases— ammonia, methyl chloride, and sulfur dioxide—as refrigerants. After those gases accidentally killed several people, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) became the standard refrigerant. However, they were found to be harmful to the earth’s ozone layer, so refrigerators now use a refrigerant called HFC 134a, which is less harmful to the ozone.
| 1. What is the main reason that people developed methods of refrigeration? |
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A. |
They wanted to expand the production of certain industries. |
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B. |
They needed to slow the natural processes that cause food to spoil. |
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C. |
They wanted to improve the flavor and nutritional value of food. |
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D. |
They needed a use for the ice that formed on lakes and rivers. |
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Explain: |
| 2. The word “perishable” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 3. What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about cold storage before the invention of artificial refrigeration? |
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A. |
It was not a safe method of preserving meat. |
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B. |
It kept food cold for only about a week. |
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C. |
It required a container made of metal or wood. |
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D. |
It was dependent on a source of ice or snow. |
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Explain: |
| 4. Artificial refrigeration involves all of the following processes EXCEPT ................ |
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A. |
the transfer of heat from one place to another |
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B. |
the rapid expansion of certain gases |
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C. |
the pumping of water vapor through a pipe |
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D. |
the evaporation of a volatile liquid |
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Explain: |
| 5. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. |
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A. |
When kinetic energy is changed to heat energy, liquid molecules turn into vapor molecules. |
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B. |
Some gases expand rapidly and give off energy when they encounter a very cold liquid. |
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C. |
During evaporation, the vapor molecules use energy, and the liquid becomes colder. |
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D. |
It takes a lot of energy to transform a liquid into a vapor, especially when the vapor loses heat. |
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Explain: |
| 6. According to the passage, who was the first person to use artificial refrigeration for a practical purpose? |
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Explain: |
| 7. The word “it” in paragraph 3 refers to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 8. Why does the author discuss the brewing industry in paragraph 4? |
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To praise the accomplishments of a prominent brewer |
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B. |
To compare cave storage with mechanical refrigeration |
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To show how refrigeration changed a whole industry |
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D. |
To describe the unique problems that brewers faced |
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Explain: |
| 9. The word “constrained” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 10. According to the passage, the first refrigerated railcar used what material as a cooling agent? |
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Explain: |
| 11. The word “toxic” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 12. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Gorrie′s basic principle of compressing a gas, and then sending it through radiating coils to cool it, is the one most often used in refrigerators today.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? |
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Explain: |
| 13. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is: “Methods of refrigeration have changed throughout history.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. |
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A. |
William Cullen developed a method of artificial refrigeration in 1748. |
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B. |
People used to preserve food by packing it with ice or snow in cold storage areas. |
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C. |
A refrigerator has an evaporator that makes the inside of the refrigerator cold. |
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Artificial refrigeration was made possible by the compression and evaporation of a volatile substance. |
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Practical uses of vapor-compression refrigeration were introduced in the nineteenth century. |
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CFCs have not been used as refrigerants since they were found to damage the earth's ozone layer. |
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Explain: |
GREEN ICEBERGS Icebergs are massive blocks of ice, irregular in shape; they float with only about 12 percent of their mass above the sea surface. They are formed by glaciers—large rivers of ice that begin inland in the snows of Greenland, Antarctica, and Alaska—and move slowly toward the sea. The forward movement, the melting at the base of the glacier where it meets the ocean, and waves and tidal action cause blocks of ice to break off and float out to sea. Icebergs are ordinarily blue to white, although they sometimes appear dark or opaque because they carry gravel and bits of rock. They may change color with changing light conditions and cloud cover, glowing pink or gold in the morning or evening light, but this color change is generally related to the low angle of the Sun above the horizon. However, travelers to Antarctica have repeatedly reported seeing green icebergs in the Weddell Sea and, more commonly, close to the Amery Ice Shelf in East Antarctica. One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion when blue ice is illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun, but green icebergs stand out among white and blue icebergs under a great variety of light conditions. Another suggestion is that the color might be related to ice with high levels of metallic compounds, including copper and iron. Recent expeditions have taken ice samples from green icebergs and ice cores—vertical, cylindrical ice samples reaching down to great depths—from the glacial ice shelves along the Antarctic continent. Analyses of these cores and samples provide a different solution to the problem. The ice shelf cores, with a total length of 215 meters (705 feet), were long enough to penetrate through glacial ice—which is formed from the compaction of snow and contains air bubbles—and to continue into the clear, bubble-free ice formed from seawater that freezes onto the bottom of the glacial ice. The properties of this clear sea ice were very similar to the ice from the green iceberg. The scientists concluded that green icebergs form when a two-layer block of shelf ice breaks away and capsizes (turns upside down), exposing the bubble-free shelf ice that was formed from seawater. A green iceberg that stranded just west of the Amery Ice Shelf showed two distinct layers: bubbly blue-white ice and bubble-free green ice separated by a one- meter-long ice layer containing sediments. The green ice portion was textured by seawater erosion. Where cracks were present, the color was light green because of light scattering; where no cracks were present, the color was dark green. No air bubbles were present in the green ice, suggesting that the ice was not formed from the compression of snow but instead from the freezing of seawater. Large concentrations of single-celled organisms with green pigments (coloring substances) occur along the edges of the ice shelves in this region, and the seawater is rich in their decomposing organic material. The green iceberg did not contain large amounts of particles from these organisms, but the ice had accumulated dissolved organic matter from the seawater. It appears that unlike salt, dissolved organic substances are not excluded from the ice in the freezing process. Analysis shows that the dissolved organic material absorbs enough blue wavelengths from solar light to make the ice appear green. Chemical evidence shows that platelets (minute flat portions) of ice form in the water and then accrete and stick to the bottom of the ice shelf to form a slush (partially melted snow). The slush is compacted by an unknown mechanism, and solid, bubblefree ice is formed from water high in soluble organic substances. When an iceberg separates from the ice shelf and capsizes, the green ice is exposed. The Amery Ice Shelf appears to be uniquely suited to the production of green ice-bergs. Once detached from the ice shelf, these bergs drift in the currents and wind systems surrounding Antarctica and can be found scattered among Antarctica's less colorful icebergs. Icebergs are massive blocks of ice, irregular in shape; they float with only about 12 percent of their mass above the sea surface. They are formed by glaciers—large rivers of ice that begin inland in the snows of Greenland, Antarctica, and Alaska—and move slowly toward the sea. The forward movement, the melting at the base of the glacier where it meets the ocean, and waves and tidal action cause blocks of ice to break off and float out to sea.
| 14. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of icebergs EXCEPT ................ |
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Waves and tides cause them to break off glaciers. |
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B. |
They are formed where glaciers meet the ocean. |
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Most of their mass is above the sea surface. |
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D. |
They do not have a regular shape. |
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Explain: |
| 15. According to paragraph 2, what causes icebergs to sometimes appear dark or opaque? ................ |
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A. |
The low angle of the Sun above the horizon |
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B. |
The presence of large cracks in their surface |
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D. |
The presence of gravel or bits of rock |
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Explain: |
| 16. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. |
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A. |
One explanation for the color of green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion that occurs when the light from a near-horizon red Sun shines on a blue iceberg. |
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B. |
One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to a great variety of light conditions, but green icebergs stand out best among other icebergs when illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun. |
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C. |
One explanation notes that green icebergs stand out among other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions, but this is attributed to an optical illusion. |
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D. |
One explanation attributes the color of green icebergs to an optical illusion under special light conditions, but green icebergs appear distinct from other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions. |
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Explain: |
| 17. The word “penetrate” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 18. According to paragraph 4, how is glacial ice formed? |
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A. |
By the capsizing of a two-layer block of shelf ice |
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B. |
By the freezing of seawater on the bottom of ice shelves |
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C. |
By breaking away from the ice shelf |
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D. |
By the compaction of snow |
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Explain: |
| 19. According to paragraph 4, ice shelf cores helped scientists explain the formation of green icebergs by showing that ................ |
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A. |
glacial ice is lighter and floats better than sea ice |
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B. |
bubble-free ice is found at the top of the ice shelf |
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C. |
the clear sea ice at the bottom of the ice shelf is similar to ice from a green iceberg |
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D. |
the ice at the bottom of green icebergs is bubble-free ice formed from frozen seawater |
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Explain: |
| 20. Why does the author mention that "The green ice portion was textured by seawater erosion"? |
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A. |
To explain why cracks in the iceberg appeared light green instead of dark green |
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B. |
To suggest that green ice is more easily eroded by seawater than white ice is |
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C. |
To support the idea that the green ice had been the bottom layer before capsizing |
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D. |
To explain how the air bubbles had been removed from the green ice |
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Explain: |
| 21. The word “accumulated” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 22. The word “excluded” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 23. The word “accrete” in the passage is closest in meaning to |
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Explain: |
| 24. Which of the following is NOT explained in the passage? |
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A. |
Why green icebergs are commonly produced in some parts of Antarctica |
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B. |
Why blocks of ice break off where glaciers meet the ocean |
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C. |
Why green icebergs contain large amounts of dissolved organic pigments |
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D. |
Why blocks of shelf ice sometimes capsize after breaking off |
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Explain: |
| 25. The passage supports which of the following statements about the Amery Ice Shelf? |
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A. |
No green icebergs are found far from the Amery Ice Shelf. |
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B. |
The Amery Ice Shelf produces only green icebergs. |
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C. |
The Amery Ice Shelf produces green icebergs because the seawater is rich in a particular kind of soluble organic material. |
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D. |
The Amery Ice Shelf produces green icebergs because its ice contains high levels of metallic compounds such as copper and iron. |
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Explain: |
| 26. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) that indicate where the sentence “Scientists have differed as to whether icebergs appear green as a result of light conditions or because of something in the ice itself.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? |
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Explain: |
| 27. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is “Several suggestions, ranging from light conditions to the presence of metallic compounds, have been offered to explain why some icebergs appear green.”. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. |
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A. |
Green icebergs are white until they come into contact with seawater containing platelets and soluble organic green pigments. |
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B. |
Ice cores were used to determine that green icebergs were formed from the compaction of metallic compounds, including copper and iron. |
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C. |
Ice cores and samples revealed that both ice shelves and green icebergs contain a layer of bubbly glacial ice and a layer of bubble-free sea ice. |
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D. |
All ice shelves can produce green icebergs, but the Amery Ice Shelf is especially well suited to do so. |
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E. |
Green icebergs form when a two- layer block of ice breaks away from a glacier and capsizes, exposing the bottom sea ice to view. |
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F. |
In a green iceberg, the sea ice contains large concentrations of organic matter from the seawater. |
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Explain: |
ESTUARIES Fresh water from land enters the ocean through rivers, streams, and groundwater-flowing through valleys. These valleys that channel fresh water from land to the salty ocean, which range from extremely narrow stream-cut channels to remarkably broad lagoons behind long barrier islands, are called estuaries. A number of types of estuaries are commercially vital. Many commercially important estuaries are the mouths of major rivers. The powerful flow of water in major rivers maintains channels that are deep enough for navigation by ocean-bound vessels, and the rivers themselves provide transportation of goods to points farther inland. In addition, estuaries formed as a result of tectonic or glacial activity are sometimes sufficiently deep to provide ports for oceangoing vessels. The types of estuaries that are not viable as ports-of-call for ocean commerce are those that are not wide enough, not deep enough, and not powerful enough to prevent the buildup of sediment. Estuary systems, which vary to reject the geology of the coasts where they are found, can be broadly categorized as one of two different types. One type of estuary system is the type that is found in flooded coastal plains, the broad land areas that extend out to the continental shelves, on the Atlantic coasts of North and South America, Europe, and Africa, for example. The other category of estuary system encompasses the mountainous coasts, with their rugged topography, such as those found along the Pacific coasts of North and South America. Today, much of the eastern coast of the United States is a flooded coastal plain. During the last ice age, much of what is today the submerged continental shelf was exposed as an extended part of the continent. Intricate river systems composed of main rivers and their tributaries cut valleys across the plains to the edge of the shelf, where they released the fresh water that they carried into the ocean. Then, as the ice melted at the end of the ice age, rising waters extended inland over the lower areas, creating today’s broad drowned river valleys. On today’s flooded coastal plains, the water is comparatively shallow and huge amounts of sand and sediment are deposited. (1)These conditions foster the growth of extensive long and narrow offshore deposits, many of which are exposed above the water as sandspits or barrier islands. (2)These Deposits are constantly being reshaped, sometimes extremely slowly and sometimes quite rapidly, by the forces of water and wind. (3)It is common along flooded coastal plains for drowned river valleys to empty into lagoons that have been created behind the sandspits and barrier islands rather than emptying directly into the ocean. (4)These lagoons support vigorous biological activity inasmuch as they are shallow, which causes them to heat up quickly, and they are fed by a constant inflow of nutrient-rich sediments. Unlike the flooded coastal plains, the mountainous coasts have a more rugged and irregular topography with deeper coastal waters. There is less sand and sediment, and external systems of barrier islands are not as pervasive as they are on flooded coastal plains because the mountainous topography blocks the flow of sediments to the coast and because the deeper ocean water inhibits the growth of barrier islands, and without the protection of barrier beaches, mountainous coasts are more exposed to direct attack by the erosive forces of waves. Different geological processes contribute to the rugged topography along mountain coasts. The tectonic activity that creates the mountains along a mountainous coast can cause large blocks of the Earth's crust tc fall below sea level; San Francisco Bay in California and the Strait of Juan de Fuca in Washington state in the north formed in this way. In the northern latitudes, coastal fjords were created as glaciers cut impressive u-shaped valleys through mountains and now carry fresh water from the land to the ocean.
| 28. The phrase “commercially vital” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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the essence of professionality |
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D. |
by-products of business |
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Explain: |
| 29. The word “viable” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 30. The passage indicates that all of the following are estuaries with commercial potential as ports of call EXCEPT ................ |
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estuaries at the mouths of powerful rivers |
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estuaries formed by glaciers |
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estuaries on flooded coastal plains |
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D. |
estuaries formed from tectonic activity |
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Explain: |
| 31. The word “Intricate” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 32. According to the passage, drowned river valleys ................ |
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A. |
are covered with deep water |
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C. |
are land areas with rivers cutting through |
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D. |
are covered with shallow water |
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Explain: |
| 33. The word “foster” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 34. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Some changes to the deposits can take place gradually over decades, while other changes can be quite radical changes in a period of only a few hours as the result of major storm activity.” can be added to paragraph 4. Where would the sentence best fit? |
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Explain: |
| 35. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. |
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A. |
The flow of sediments into lagoons causes biological activity, which in turn causes the lagoons to heat up. |
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B. |
Lagoons become more and more shallow as they heat up and flow into the ocean. |
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C. |
A lot of life exists in lagoons for two reasons: the low water level and the steady source of new residue. |
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D. |
Biological activity contributes to the formation of lagoons by heating them up and providing a source of food. |
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Explain: |
| 36. The author begins paragraph 5 with the phrase “Unlike the flooded coastal plains” in order to ................ |
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A. |
indicate that a thorough discussion of flooded coastal plains follows |
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B. |
show that flooded coastal plains and mountainous coasts have some similarities in spite of their differences |
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C. |
indicate that the discussion is moving from one type of estuary system to the other |
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D. |
clarify the ideas of flooded coastal plains that were previously presented |
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Explain: |
| 37. The phrase “not as pervasive as” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 38. The phrase “this way” in paragraph 5 refers to ................ |
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A. |
geological processes contributing to rugged topography |
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B. |
the sea level rising along the mountainous coast |
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C. |
large blocks of crust sinking as a result of tectonic activity |
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D. |
glaciers cutting valleys through mountains |
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Explain: |
| 39. It is implied in the passage that fjords ................ |
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A. |
are found throughout the world |
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B. |
have as much sediment as flooded coastal plains |
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C. |
were formed in the same way as the San Francisco Bay |
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D. |
are a type of mountainous estuary system |
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Explain: |
| 40. Choose FOUR phrases that describe the estuary systems on flooded coastal plains |
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Are covered with shallow water |
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B. |
Are protected by barrier beaches |
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C. |
Were created on part of a submerged continent |
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D. |
Are the primary way that fresh water is channeled to the ocean |
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E. |
Have smaller amounts of deposits |
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F. |
Were created by tectonic or glacial activity |
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G. |
Have huge amounts of deposits |
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H. |
Lead into deeper bodies of water |
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Are never commercially viable |
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G. |
Are not protected by barrier beaches |
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Explain: |
| 41. Choose FOUR phrases that describe the estuary systems on mountainous coasts |
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A. |
Are not protected by barrier beaches |
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B. |
Are protected by barrier beaches |
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C. |
Have huge amounts of deposits |
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D. |
Are the primary way that fresh water is channeled to the ocean |
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E. |
Were created on part of a submerged continent |
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F. |
Are never commercially viable |
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G. |
Have smaller amounts of deposits |
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Were created by tectonic or glacial activity |
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I. |
Are covered with shallow water |
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G. |
Lead into deeper bodies of water |
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Explain: |
MUSICAL TALENT Among all the abilities with which an individual may be endowed, musical talent appears earliest in life. Very young children can exhibit musical precocity for different reasons. Some develop exceptional skill as a result of a well-designed instructional regime, such as the Suzuki method for the violin. Some have the good fortune to be born into a musical family in a household filled with music. In a number of interesting cases, musical talent is part of an otherwise disabling condition such as autism or mental retardation. A musically gifted child has an inborn talent; however, the extent to which the talent is expressed publicly will depend upon the environment in which the child lives. Musically gifted children master at an early age the principal elements of music, including pitch and rhythm. Pitch—or melody—is more central in certain cultures, for example, in Eastern societies that make use of tiny quarter-tone intervals. Rhythm, sounds produced at certain auditory frequencies and grouped according to a prescribed system, is emphasized in sub-Saharan Africa, where the rhythmic ratios can be very complex. All children have some aptitude for making music. (1) During infancy, normal children sing as well as babble, and they can produce individual sounds and sound patterns. (2) Infants as young as two months can match their mother’s songs in pitch, loudness, and melodic shape, and infants at four months can match rhythmic structure as well. (3) Infants are especially predisposed to acquire these core aspects of music, and they can also engage in sound play that clearly exhibits creativity. (4) Individual differences begin to emerge in young children as they learn to sing. Some children can match large segments of a song by the age of two or three. Many others can only approximate pitch at this age and may still have difficulty in producing accurate melodies by the age of five or six. However, by the time they reach school age, most children in any culture have a schema of what a song should be like and can produce a reasonably accurate imitation of the songs commonly heard in their environment. The early appearance of superior musical ability in some children provides evidence that musical talent may be a separate and unique form of intelligence. There are numerous tales of young artists who have a remarkable “ear” or extraordinary memory for music and a natural understanding of musical structure. In many of these cases, the child is average in every other way but displays an exceptional ability in music. Even the most gifted child, however, takes about ten years to achieve the levels of performance or composition that would constitute mastery of the musical sphere. Every generation in music history has had its famous prodigies—individuals with exceptional musical powers that emerge at a young age. In the eighteenth century, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart began composing and performing at the age of six. As a child, Mozart could play the piano like an adult. He had perfect pitch, and at age nine he was also a master of the art of modulation—transitions from one key to another—which became one of the hallmarks of his style. By the age of eleven, he had composed three symphonies and 30 other major works. Mozart’s well-developed talent was preserved into adulthood. Unusual musical ability is a regular characteristic of certain anomalies such as autism. In one case, an autistic girl was able to play “Happy Birthday” in the style of various composers, including Mozart, Beethoven, Verdi, and Schubert. When the girl was three, her mother called her by playing incomplete melodies, which the child would complete with the appropriate tone in the proper octave. For the autistic child, music may be the primary mode of communication, and the child may cling to music because it represents a haven in a world that is largely confusing and frightening. Glossary: - schema: a mental outline or model - anomaly: departure from what is normal; abnormal condition - autism: a developmental disorder involving impaired communication and emotional separation
| 42. The word “precocity” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................ |
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Explain: |
| 43. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. |
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A. |
Children with exceptional musical talent will look for the best way to express themselves through music-making. |
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B. |
Children may be born with superior musical ability, but their environment will determine how this ability is developed. |
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C. |
Every child is naturally gifted, and it is the responsibility of the public schools to recognize and develop these talents. |
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D. |
Some musically talented children live in an environment surrounded by music, while others have little exposure to music. |
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Explain: |
| 44. The author makes the point that musical elements such as pitch and rhythm ................ |
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A. |
vary in emphasis in different cultures |
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B. |
express different human emotions |
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C. |
distinguish music from other art forms |
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D. |
make music difficult to learn |
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Explain: |
| 45. The word “predisposed” in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to ................ |
45
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Explain: |
| 46. According to the passage, when does musical talent usually begin to appear? |
46
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A. |
When children learn to sing at two or three years old |
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B. |
When infants start to babble and produce sound patterns |
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C. |
between the ages of two and four months |
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D. |
between ten years old and adolescence |
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Explain: |
| 47. According to the passage, which of the following suggests that musical talent is a separate form of intelligence? |
47
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A. |
Exceptional musical ability in an otherwise average child |
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B. |
Differences between learning music and learning language |
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C. |
Recognition of the emotional power of music |
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D. |
the ability of all babies to acquire core elements of music |
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Explain: |
| 48. Why does the author discuss Mozart in paragraph 6? |
48
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A. |
To give an example of a well-known musical prodigy |
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B. |
to list musical accomplishments of the eighteenth century |
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C. |
to compare past and present views of musical talent |
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D. |
to describe the development of individual musical skill |
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Explain: |
| 49. In music, the change from one key to another is known as ................ |
49
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Explain: |
| 50. All of the following are given as examples of exceptional musical talent EXCEPT ................ |
50
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A. |
appreciation for a wide variety of musical styles |
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B. |
ability to compose major works at a young age |
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C. |
a remarkable “ear” or perfect memory for music |
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D. |
playing a single song in the style of various composers |
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Explain: |
| 51. The word “haven” in paragraph 7 is closest in meaning to ................ |
51
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Explain: |
| 52. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about exceptional musical ability? |
52
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A. |
It has been documented and studied but is little understood. |
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B. |
It is the result of natural talent and a supportive environment. |
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C. |
occurs more frequently in some cultures than in others. |
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D. |
It is evidence of a superior level of intelligence in other areas. |
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Explain: |
| 53. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “They can even imitate patterns and tones sung by other people.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? |
53
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Explain: |
| 54. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is: “Musical talent usually appears early in life.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. |
54
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A. |
Very young children can develop exceptional skill in playing the violin by the Suzuki method. |
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B. |
Exceptional musical ability is often part of an otherwise disabling condition such as autism. |
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C. |
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart had composed several major works and symphonies by the age of eleven |
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D. |
Autistic children cannot relate to their environment realistically and therefore have difficulty in communicating. |
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E. |
While all children have a basic ability to make music, some exhibit extraordinary skill at a very early age. |
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F. |
Prodigies have a natural understanding of musical structure that enables them to play and compose music with great skill. |
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Explain: |
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING Carbon dioxide and other naturally occurring gases in the earth’s atmosphere create a natural greenhouse effect by trapping and absorbing solar radiation. These gases act as a blanket and keep the planet warm enough for life to survive and flourish. The warming of the earth is balanced by some of the heat escaping from the atmosphere back into space. Without this compensating flow of heat out of the system, the temperature of the earth’s surface and its atmosphere would rise steadily. Scientists are increasingly concerned about a human-driven greenhouse effect resulting from a rise in atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping greenhouse gases. The man-made greenhouse effect is the exhalation of industrial civilization. A major contributing factor is the burning of large amounts of fossil fuels—coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another is the destruction of the world’s forests, which reduces the amount of carbon dioxide converted to oxygen by plants. Emissions of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons. nitrous oxide, and methane from human activities will enhance the greenhouse effect, causing the earth’s surface to become warmer. The main greenhouse gas, water vapor, will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it. There is agreement within the scientific community that the buildup of greenhouse gases is already causing the earth’s average surface temperature to rise. This is changing global climate at an unusually fast rate. According to the World Meteorological Organization, the earth’s average temperature climbed about 1 degree F in the past century, and nine of the ten warmest years on record have occurred since 1990. A United Nations panel has predicted that average global temperatures could rise as much as 10.5 degrees F during the next century as heat-trapping gases from human industry accumulate in the atmosphere. What are the potential impacts of an enhanced greenhouse effect? According to estimates by an international committee, North American climatic zones could shift northward by as much as 550 kilometers (340 miles). Such a change in climate would likely affect all sectors of society. In some areas, heat and moisture stress would cut crop yields, and traditional farming practices would have to change. For example, in the North American grain belt, higher temperatures and more frequent drought during the growing season might require farmers to switch from corn to wheat and to use more water for irrigation. Global warming may also cause a rise in sea level by melting polar ice caps. A rise in sea level would accelerate coastal erosion and inundate islands and low-lying coastal plains, some of which are densely populated. Millions of acres of coastal farmlands would be covered by water. Furthermore, the warming of seawater will cause the water to expand, thus adding to the potential danger. Global warming has already left its fingerprint on the natural world. Two research teams recently reviewed hundreds of published papers that tracked changes in the range and behavior of plant and animal species, and they found ample evidence of plants blooming and birds nesting earlier in the spring. Both teams concluded that rising global temperatures are shifting the ranges of hundreds of species—thus climatic zones—northward. These studies are hard evidence that the natural world is already responding dramatically to climate change, even though the change has just begun. If global warming trends continue, changes in the environment will have an enormous impact on world biology. Birds especially play a critical role in the environment by pollinating plants, dispersing seeds, and controlling insect populations; thus, changes in their populations will reverberate throughout the ecosystems they inhabit.
| 55. According to the passage, how do carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases affect the earth-atmosphere system? |
55
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A. |
They create the conditions for new forms of life to emerge. |
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B. |
They cause heat to flow from the atmosphere into space. |
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C. |
They collect solar radiation that warms the earth's surface. |
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D. |
They decrease the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. |
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Explain: |
| 56. All of the following are contributing factors to global warming EXCEPT ................ |
56
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A. |
the loss of forest lands |
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B. |
the burning of coal and petroleum |
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C. |
the buildup of water vapor in the atmosphere |
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D. |
the conversion of carbon dioxide to oxygen |
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Explain: |
| 57. The word “enhance” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................ |
57
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Explain: |
| 58. What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about global climate change? |
58
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A. |
Climate change will have both positive and negative effects on human society. |
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B. |
It is difficult to predict the effects of climate change over the next century. |
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C. |
International organizations have been studying climate change only since 1990. |
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D. |
Climate change is likely to continue as long as heat-trapping gases accumulate. |
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Explain: |
| 59. According to paragraph 4, what is one effect that climate change could have on agriculture in North America? |
59
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A. |
Less water available for irrigating crops |
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B. |
Changes in the crops that farmers can grow |
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C. |
Movement of farms to the northernmost regions |
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D. |
Return to more traditional methods of farming |
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Explain: |
| 60. The word “inundate” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................ |
60
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Explain: |
| 61. Why does the author use the word “fingerprint” in paragraph 6? |
61
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A. |
To suggest that people do not cause global warming |
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B. |
To describe a method used by two research teams |
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C. |
To show that hundreds of fingerprints were examined |
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D. |
To introduce conclusive evidence of global warming |
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Explain: |
| 62. The word “they” in paragraph 6 refers to ................ |
62
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Explain: |
| 63. The word “hard” in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to ................ |
63
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Explain: |
| 64. What evidence does the author give that climatic zones have shifted northward? |
64
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A. |
The water in the ocean expands as it gets warmer. |
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B. |
Birds no longer pollinate plants or control insect populations. |
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C. |
Plants bloom and birds build nests earlier in the spring. |
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D. |
Solar radiation escapes from the atmosphere back into space. |
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Explain: |
| 65. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “The combination of melting ice caps with the expansion of water could raise the sea level several centimeters by the year 2100.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? |
65
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Explain: |
| 66. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is: “Scientists are concerned about the greenhouse effect and its role in global warming.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. |
66
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A. |
Global warming could result in job loss for millions of farmers in coastal areas. |
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B. |
Global warming will alter the range and behavior of plants and animals, changing the balance of ecosystems. |
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C. |
A rise in atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases is causing the earth's surface to become warmer. |
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D. |
A rising sea level and shifts in climatic zones are probable effects of global warming. |
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E. |
Some scientists think the temperature trend indicates man-made global warming, while others believe it is natural climate variability. |
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F. |
Nine of the ten warmest years on record have occurred since 1990. |
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Explain: |
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