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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE TIDES

Tides are a natural phenomenon involving the alternating rise and fall in the earth’s large bodies of water caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun. The combination of these two variable forces produces the complex recurrent cycle of the tides. Tides may occur in both oceans and seas, to a limited extent in large lakes, the atmosphere, and, to a very minute degree, in the earth itself.

The force that generates tides results from the interaction of two forces: the centrifugal force produced by the revolution of the earth around the center-of-gravity of the earth - moon system; and the gravitational attraction of the moon acting upon the earth’s waters. Although the moon is only 238,852 miles from the earth, compared with the sun’s much greater distance of 92,956,000 miles, the moon’s closer distance outranks its much smaller mass, and thus the moon’s tide-raising force is more than twice that of the sun.

The tide-generating forces of the moon and sun ‘cause a maximum accumulation of the waters of the oceans at two opposite positions on the earth’s surface. At the same time, compensating amounts of water are drawn from all points 90 degrees away from these tidal bulges. As the earth rotates, a sequence of two high tides and two low tides is produced each day. Successive high tides occur on an average of 12.4 hours apart. High tide at any given location occurs when the moon is overhead and low tide when it is at either horizon.

The highest and lowest levels of high tide, called spring tide and neap tide, each occur twice in every lunar month of about 27.5 days. A spring tide occurs at the new moon and at the full moon, when the moon and earth are lined up with the sun, and thus the moon’s pull is reinforced by the sun’s pull. At spring tide, the difference between high and low tides is the greatest. A neap tide, the lowest level of high tide, occurs when the sun-to- earth direction is at right angles to the moon-to-earth direction. When this happens, the gravitational forces of the moon and sun counteract each other: thus, the moon’s pull is at minimum strength, and the difference between high and low tides is the least. Spring and neap tides at any given location have a range of about 20 percent more or less, respectively, than the average high tide.

The vertical range of tides—the difference between high and low—varies according to the size, surface shape, and bottom topography of the basin in which tidal movement occurs. In the open water of the central Pacific, the range is no more than about a foot; in the relatively small, shallow North Sea, it is about 12 feet. Along the narrow channel of the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, the difference between high and low tides may reach 45 feet under spring tide conditions—the world’s widest tidal range. At New Orleans, which is at the mouth of the Mississippi River, the periodic rise and fall of the tides varies with the river’s stage, being about ten inches at low stage and zero at high. In every case, actual high or low tide can vary considerably from the average.

Several factors affect tidal ranges, including abrupt changes in atmospheric pressure or prolonged periods of extreme high or low pressure. (1) They are also influenced by the density and volume of seawater, variations in ocean-current velocities, earthquakes, and the growing or shrinking of the world’s glaciers. (2) In fact, any of these factors alone can alter sea level. (3) The greater and more rapid the change of water level, the greater the erosive effect of the tidal action, and thus in the amount of material transported and deposited on the shore. (4)

1. The word “recurrent” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

A.

repeating

B.

interrupted

C.

simultaneous

D.

mysterious

Explain:

2. According to the passage, the force that generates tides on the earth is

A.

a combination of gravity and centrifugal force

B.

abrupt changes in atmospheric pressure

C.

the gravitational pull of the earth's core

D.

the same force that generates tides on the moon

Explain:

3. According to the passage, the moon

A.

has a gravitational pull toward the sun

B.

affects tides more than the sun does

C.

has a greater mass than the sun

D.

is farther from the earth than the sun

Explain:

4. The word “bulges” in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to

A.

currents

B.

increases

C.

ridges

D.

waves

Explain:

5. What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about tides in different places on the earth?

A.

The time between high and low tides is the same in different places.

B.

Some places have two high tides each day, but others have only one.

C.

When it is high tide in some places, it is low tide in other places.

D.

High tide occurs at every location on the earth at the same time.

Explain:

6. A spring tide occurs at the time of the lunar month when

A.

the moon appears as a crescent or half-circle

B.

the difference between high and low tides is the least

C.

the moon's gravitational pull is at its strongest

D.

the sun does not exert any gravitational force

Explain:

7. The word “counteract” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to

A.

avoid

B.

enhance

C.

oppose

D.

signal

Explain:

8. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.

Spring tides are 20 percent more, and neap tides 20 percent less, than the average high tide in a particular place.

B.

20 percent of both spring tides and neap tides always occur in the same location.

C.

If the location of a spring tide is known, then a neap tide in the same location will be 20 percent less.

D.

There has been a 20 percent change in the number of spring tides and neap tides that occur at certain locations.

Explain:

9. The author mentions “the Bay of Fundy” in paragraph 5 in order to

A.

show how rivers can affect the rise and fall of tides

B.

give the most extreme example of a tidal range

C.

explain why a narrow channel is dangerous to ships

D.

compare the Bay of Fundy with larger bodies of water

Explain:

10. The word prolonged in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to

A.

surprising

B.

predicted

C.

extended

D.

dangerous.

Explain:

11. All of the following are mentioned as influences on the vertical range of tides EXCEPT

A.

sudden changes in atmospheric pressure

B.

the size and shape of the body of water

C.

changes in the size of the world's glaciers

D.

increasing levels of pollution in the oceans

Explain:

12. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Storm surges, such as the heaping up of ocean water by hurricane winds, are yet another factor.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 1

B.

Number 4

C.

Number 2

D.

Number 3

Explain:

13. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is: “Many factors influence the phenomenon of tides, the alternating rise and fall in the earth′s large bodies of water.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

A.

The level of high tide varies throughout the lunar month.

B.

The character of the basin and various environmental conditions affect the vertical range of tides.

C.

The gravitational forces of the moon and the sun together produce the cycle of the tides.

D.

Tides occur in the earth's atmosphere and also in the earth itself.

E.

Scientists have been studying the moon's influence on tides for several centuries.

F.

The stage of the Mississippi River determines the level of tides at New Orleans.

Explain:

MARY COLTER AND FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

In the early twentieth century, the thrust in American architecture was toward a style rooted in the American landscape and based on American rather than European forms. Two architects who worked independently yet simultaneously at endorsing an American architecture were Mary Colter (1869-1958) and Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959). Both developed regional styles that paralleled the regionalism seen in the other visual arts. Colter created a uniquely Southwestern idiom incorporating desert landscapes with Native American arts: Wright and his followers in Chicago developed the Prairie style of domestic architecture that reflected the natural landscape of the Midwest.

Mary Colter’s hotels and national park buildings are rooted so masterfully in the history of the Southwest that they seem to be genuine pieces of that history. Her magnificent Watchtower, overlooking the Grand Canyon in Arizona, was built to suggest an ancient Native American ruin preserved for the delight of the present-day traveler.

Colter was a lifelong student of art history, natural history, and human civilization. Her well-rounded artistic talents empowered her to work historical references into buildings constructed with modem methods and materials. She preferred to use materials indigenous to the region, such as Kaibab limestone and yellow pine. She took great stock in materials and setting, gathering many of her materials on-site and incorporating them in their natural state into her projects. She treated building and site as integral halves of a single composition and merged them seamlessly. Her Lookout Studio, for example, appears to rise straight from the rim of the Grand Canyon because its layering of stonework matches the texture, pattern, and color of the canyon wall below it.

When Colter designed the Watchtower, she wanted the building to be a part of its environment while also enhancing the view' of the surrounding desert and the canyon and river below'. She decided to recreate a Native American watchtower because it would provide the necessary height while assuming the appearance of a prehistoric building. Colter was familiar with the architectural remains of ancient villages scattered about the Southwest and was especially fascinated by the stone towers—round, square, and oval monoliths. The ancient Round Tower at Mesa Verde became the direct inspiration for the form and proportions of the Watchtower. TheTwin Towers ruin at Hovenweep, whose stone was closer to that available at the Grand Canyon, was the model for the Watchtower’s masonry. The Watchtower is perhaps the best example of Colter’s integration of history, architecture, and landscape in a unified work of art.

Like Mary Colter, Frank Lloyd Wright believed that architecture was an extension of the natural environment. Wright was appalled by much of what he saw in the industrialized world. He was not fond of cities, and although he designed office buildings and museums, his favorite commissions were for homes, usually in the country. Wright is associated with the Prairie style of residential architecture, whose emphasis on horizontal elements reflected the prairie landscapes of the Midwest. Most Prairie-style homes have one or two stories and are built of brick or timber covered with stucco. The eaves of the low-pitched roof extend well beyond the walls, enhancing the structure’s horizontality.

Wright’s own studio-residence in Wisconsin was completely integrated with the surrounding landscape. (1) He nestled his house in the brow of a hill and gave it the name Taliesin, which means “shining brow” in Welsh. (2) Every element of the design corresponded to the surrounding landscape. The yellow stone came from a quarry a mile away, so Taliesin looked like the outcroppings on the local hills. (3) The exterior wood was the color of gray tree trunks. (4) The stucco walls above the stone had the same tawny color as the sandbanks in the river below.

Wright’s most famous house, Falling Water, was built right over a waterfall in Pennsylvania. The house blends harmoniously with its surroundings, yet it departs from the Prairie philosophy of being a completely integrated extension of the natural landscape.

Glossary:

Indigenous: originating or growing in an area; native

14. The word “thrust” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

A.

criticism

B.

education

C.

movement

D.

accident

Explain:

15. According to the passage, both Mary Colter and Frank Lloyd Wright designed buildings that

A.

relied on the assistance of other artists

B.

blended into the natural environment

C.

reflected the history of the region

D.

emphasized the architect's individuality

Explain:

16. The author mentions “Kaibab limestone and yellow pine” in paragraph 3 as examples of

A.

references to art history and natural history

B.

materials with high artistic value

C.

traditional materials that are now scarce

D.

materials that are native to the Southwest

Explain:

17. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 3? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.

Colter bought stock in corporations that made building materials and delivered them directly to the project site.

B.

Because Colter used various types of materials, it was often difficult to combine them in a way that would look natural.

C.

Colter valued materials and location, so she blended into her works many natural materials collected from the building site.

D.

Materials and setting were equally important to Colter, who was very skilled at choosing the right materials for the job.

Explain:

18. The word “them” in paragraph 3 refers to

A.

her projects

B.

modern methods and materials

C.

texture, pattern, and color

D.

building and site

Explain:

19. What was the main inspiration for Mary Colter′s design of the Watchtower?

A.

The ancient Round Tower at Mesa Verde

B.

The colorful stone cliffs of the Grand Canyon

C.

The beautiful views of the American Southwest

D.

Architectural remains of masonry homes.

Explain:

20. What can be inferred from the passage about the Watchtower?

A.

The Watchtower's success inspired other architects to design tall buildings.

B.

The Watchtower was the only building Colter designed at the Grand Canyon.

C.

The Watchtower's purpose was to help people appreciate the desert scenery.

D.

Colter used landscape design to enhance the beauty of the Watchtower.

Explain:

21. All of the following characterize the Prairie style of architecture EXCEPT

A.

an emphasis on horizontal elements

B.

a direct reference to the region's history

C.

a concern for the surrounding landscape

D.

a low roof that extends beyond the walls

Explain:

22. The word “nestled” in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to

A.

painted brightly

B.

set comfortably

C.

buried deeply

D.

built daringly

Explain:

23. Why does the author mention “Falling Water” in paragraph 7?

A.

To show that Wright did not work in just one style

B.

To give an example of an artistic use of a waterfall

C.

To provide the best illustration of the Prairie style

D.

To criticize Wright's most famous house design

Explain:

24. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Taliesin′s rough stone facades and low-slung roofs blurred the distinction between the manmade and the natural.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 1

B.

Number 4

C.

Number 3

D.

Number 2

Explain:

25. Choose THREE sentences that describe the architect Mary Colter.

A.

The architect designed structures that would blend into the desert environment.

B.

Native American culture provided the architect with ideas and inspiration.

C.

The architect developed a style integrating the history and landscape of the American Southwest.

D.

The architect improved the designs of famous architects of the past.

E.

The architect preferred designing country residences.

F.

Others followed the architect in developing a style that would suit the landscape of the prairies.

G.

The architect worked exclusively with modern materials and methods.

Explain:

26. Choose TWO sentences that describe the architect Frank Lloyd Wright.

A.

The architect developed a style integrating the history and landscape of the American Southwest.

B.

The architect worked exclusively with modern materials and methods.

C.

Native American culture provided the architect with ideas and inspiration.

D.

The architect preferred designing country residences.

E.

Others followed the architect in developing a style that would suit the landscape of the prairies.

F.

The architect designed structures that would blend into the desert environment.

G.

The architect improved the designs of famous architects of the past.

Explain:

LOIE FULLER

The United States dancer Loie Fuller (1862-1928) found theatrical dance in the late nineteenth century artistically unfulfilling. She considered herself an artist rather than a mere entertainer, and she, in turn, attracted the notice of other artists.

Fuller devised a type of dance that focused on the shifting play of lights and colors on the voluminous skirts or draperies she wore, which she kept in constant motion principally through movements of her arms, sometimes extended with wands concealed under her costumes. She rejected the technical virtuosity of movement in ballet, the most prestigious form of theatrical dance at that time, perhaps because her formal dance training was minimal. Although her early theatrical career had included stints as an actress, she was not primarily interested in storytelling or expressing emotions through dance; the drama of her dancing emanated from her visual effects.

Although she discovered and introduced her art in the United States, she achieved her greatest glory in Paris, where she was engaged by the Folies Bergère in 1892 and soon became "La Loie," the darling of Parisian audiences. Many of her dances represented elements or natural objects—Fire, the Lily, the Butterfly, and so on—and thus accorded well with the fashionable Art Nouveau style, which emphasized nature imagery and fluid, sinuous lines. Her dancing also attracted the attention of French poets and painters of the period, for it appealed to their liking for mystery, their belief in art for art's sake, a nineteenth-century idea that art is valuable in itself rather than because it may have some moral or educational benefit, and their efforts to synthesize form and content.

Fuller had scientific leanings and constantly experimented with electrical lighting (which was then in its infancy), colored gels, slide projections, and other aspects of stage technology. She invented and patented special arrangements of mirrors and concocted chemical dyes for her draperies. Her interest in color and light paralleled the research of several artists of the period, notably the painter Seurat, famed for his Pointillist technique of creating a sense of shapes and light on canvas by applying extremely small dots of color rather than by painting lines. One of Fuller's major inventions was underlighting, in which she stood on a pane of frosted glass illuminated from underneath. This was particularly effective in her Fire Dance (1895), performed to the music of Richard Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyries." The dance caught the eye of artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, who depicted it in a lithograph.

As her technological expertise grew more sophisticated, so did the other aspects of her dances. (1) Although she gave little thought to music in her earliest dances, she later used scores by Gluck, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Wagner, eventually graduating to Stravinsky, Fauré, Debussy, and Mussorgsky, composers who were then considered progressive. (2) She began to address more ambitious themes in her dances such as The Sea, in which her dancers invisibly agitated a huge expanse of silk, played upon by colored lights. (3) Always open to scientific and technological innovations, she befriended the scientists Marie and Pierre Curie upon their discovery of radium and created a Radium Dance, which simulated the phosphorescence of that element. (4) She both appeared in films—then in an early stage of development—and made them herself; the hero of her fairy-tale film Le Lys de la Vie (1919) was played by René Clair, later a leading French film director.

At the Paris Exposition in 1900, she had her own theater, where, in addition to her own dances, she presented pantomimes by the Japanese actress Sada Yocco. She as-sembled an all-female company at this time and established a school around 1908, but neither survived her. Although she is remembered today chiefly for her innovations in stage lighting, her activities also touched Isadora Duncan and Ruth St. Denis, two other United States dancers who were experimenting with new types of dance. She sponsored Duncan's first appearance in Europe. Her theater at the Paris Exposition was visited by St. Denis, who found new ideas about stagecraft in Fuller's work and fresh sources for her art in Sada Yocco's plays. In 1924 St. Denis paid tribute to Fuller with the duet Valse a la Loie.

27. What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about theatrical dance in the late nineteenth century?

A.

It was a relatively new art form in the United States.

B.

It influenced many artists outside of the field of dance.

C.

It was more a form of entertainment than a form of serious art.

D.

It was very similar to theatrical dance of the early nineteenth century.

Explain:

28. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are characteristic of Fuller′s type of dance EXCEPT ................

A.

experimentation using color

B.

technical virtuosity of movement

C.

large and full costumes

D.

continuous movement of her costumes

Explain:

29. The word “prestigious” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

A.

serious

B.

highly regarded

C.

financially rewarding

D.

demanding

Explain:

30. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.

Fuller's focus on the visual effects of dance resulted from her early theatrical training as an actress.

B.

Fuller was more interested in dance's visual impact than in its narrative or emotional possibilities.

C.

Fuller believed that the drama of her dancing sprang from her emotional style of storytelling.

D.

Fuller used visual effects to dramatize the stories and emotions expressed in her work.

Explain:

31. The word “engaged” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

A.

praised

B.

hired

C.

attracted

D.

noticed

Explain:

32. The word “synthesize” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

A.

integrate

B.

define

C.

simplify

D.

improve

Explain:

33. According to paragraph 3, why was Fuller′s work well received in Paris?

A.

Influential poets tried to interest dancers in Fuller's work when she arrived in Paris.

B.

Fuller's work at this time borrowed directly from French artists working in other media.

C.

Fuller's dances were in harmony with the artistic values already present in Paris.

D.

Parisian audiences were particularly interested in artists and artistic movements from the United States.

Explain:

34. According to paragraph 4, Fuller′s Fire Dance was notable in part for its ................

A.

use of dyes and paints to create an image of fire

B.

use of colored gels to illuminate glass

C.

draperies with small dots resembling the Pointillist technique of Seurat

D.

technique of lighting the dancer from beneath

Explain:

35. Why does the author mention Fuller′s The Sea?

A.

To illustrate how Fuller's interest in science was reflected in her work

B.

To point out a dance of Fuller's in which music did not play an important role

C.

To illustrate a particular way in which Fuller developed as an artist

D.

To explain why Fuller sometimes used music by progressive composers

Explain:

36. The word “agitated” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

A.

pretended to be

B.

emerged from beneath

C.

created movement in

D.

arranged themselves in

Explain:

37. According to paragraph 6, what was true of Fuller′s theater at the Paris Exposition?

A.

It presented some works that were not by Fuller.

B.

It continued to operate as a theater after Fuller died.

C.

It featured performances by prominent male as well as female dancers.

D.

It became a famous school that is still named in honor of Fuller.

Explain:

38. The passage mentions which of the following as a dance of Fuller′s that was set to music?

A.

Fire Dance

B.

Valse a la Loie

C.

Le Lys de la Vie

D.

Radium Dance

Explain:

39. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) that indicate where the sentence “For all her originality in dance, her interests expanded beyond it into newly emerging artistic media.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 2

B.

Number 4

C.

Number 3

D.

Number 1

Explain:

40. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is “Loie Fuller was an important and innovative dancer.”. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

A.

Fuller continued to develop throughout her career, creating more complex works and exploring new artistic media.

B.

Fuller introduced many technical innovations to the staging of theatrical dance.

C.

By the 1920's, Fuller's theater at the Paris Exhibition had become the world center for innovative dance.

D.

Fuller believed that audiences in the late nineteenth century had lost interest in most theatrical dance.

E.

Fuller transformed dance in part by creating dance interpretations of works by poets and painters.

F.

Fuller's work influenced a number of other dancers who were interested in experimental dance.

Explain:

AQUATIC SCHOOLS

Many species of fish, particularly smaller fish, travel in schools, moving in tight formations often with the precision of the most highly disciplined military unit on parade. (1) Some move in synchronized hordes, while others move in starkly geometric forms. (2) In addition to the varieties of shapes of schools of fish, there are countless varieties of schooling behaviors. (3) Some fish coalesce into schools and then spread out in random patterns, while others move into close formations at specific times, such as feeding times, but are more spread out at other times. (4) Some move in schools composed of members of all age groups, while others move in schools predominantly when they are young but take up a more solitary existence as they mature. Though this behavior is quite a regular, familiar phenomenon, there is much that is not completely known about it, particularly the exact function that it serves and what mechanisms fish use to make it happen.

Numerous hypotheses have been proposed and tested concerning the purpose of schooling behavior in fish. Schooling certainly promotes the survival of the species, but questions arise as to the way the schooling enables fish to have a better chance of surviving. Certainly, the fact that fish congregate together in schools helps to ensure their survival in that schooling provides numerous types of protection for the members of the school. One form of protection derives from the sheer numbers in the school. When a predator attacks a school containing a huge number of fish, the predator will be able to consume only a small percentage of the school. Whereas some of the members of the school will be lost to the predator, the majority of the school will be able to survive. Another form of protection comes from the special coloration and markings of different types of fish. Certain types of coloration or markings such as stripes or patterns in vibrant and shiny colors create a visual effect when huge numbers of the fish are clustered together, making it more difficult for a potential predator to focus on specific members of the school. A final form of protection comes from a special sense that fish possess, a sense that is enhanced when fish swim in schools. This special sense is related to a set of lateral line organs that consist of rows of pores leading to fluid-filled canals. These organs are sensitive to minute vibrations in the water. The thousands of sets of those special organs in a school of fish together can prove very effective in warning the school about an approaching threat.

(1) It is also unclear exactly how fish manage to maintain their tight formations. (2) Sight seems to play a role in the ability of fish to move in schools, and some scientists believe that, at least in some species, sight may play the principal role. (3) However, many experiments indicate that more than sight is involved. Some fish school quite well in the dark or in murky water where visibility is extremely limited. (4) This indicates that senses other than eyesight must be involved in enabling the schooling behavior. The lateral line system most likely plays a significant role in the ability of fish to school. Because these lateral line organs are sensitive to the most minute vibrations and currents, this organ system may be used by fish to detect movements among members of their school even when eyesight is limited or unavailable.

41. The author mentions “the most highly disciplined military unit on parade” in paragraph 1 in order to ................

A.

provide an example of a way that military units travel

B.

contrast the movement of a military unit with that of a school of fish

C.

describe the aggressive nature of a school of fish

D.

create a mental image of the movement of a school of fish

Explain:

42. The word “hordes” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

shapes

B.

masses

C.

pairs

D.

patterns

Explain:

43. All of the following are stated in paragraph 1 about schooling EXCEPT that ................

A.

it is quite common

B.

it is fully understood

C.

it can involve large numbers of fish

D.

it can involve a number of different fish behaviors

Explain:

44. Which fish would be least likely to be in a school? ................

A.

A young, hungry fish

B.

A large, older fish

C.

A tiny, shiny fish

D.

A smaller, colorful fish

Explain:

45. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) in paragraph 1 which indicate where the sentence “These may take the shape, for example, of wedges, triangles, spheres, or ovals.” can be added to paragraph 1. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 3

B.

Number 2

C.

Number 1

D.

Number 4

Explain:

46. The word “it” in paragraph 1 refers to ................

A.

function

B.

behavior

C.

fish

D.

existence

Explain:

47. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the first highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.

Many facts about the way that fish congregate in schools have been studied.

B.

After an attack, the fish that survive tend to move into schools.

C.

The survival of fish depends upon their ability to bring new members into the school.

D.

Fish travel in schools to protect themselves in various ways.

Explain:

48. The phrase “sheer numbers” in paragraph 2 could best be replaced by ................

A.

solitude

B.

multitude

C.

similitude

D.

interlude

Explain:

49. It can be inferred from the passage that, when a predator attacks, ................

A.

it is usually successful in wiping out the entire school

B.

it attacks only schools that lack sense organs

C.

it rarely manages to catch any fish that are part of a school

D.

it cannot possibly consume all members of a school if the school is large enough

Explain:

50. It is stated in paragraph 2 that ................

A.

fish in schools rarely have distinct markings

B.

the effect of coloration is multiplied when fish are massed together

C.

the bright coloration makes it easier for predators to spot fish

D.

schooling fish tend to have muted coloration

Explain:

51. The word “minute” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

instant

B.

careful

C.

tiny

D.

timely

Explain:

52. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the second highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.

Because so many fish are in a school, all of their sense organs work well together to provide warnings.

B.

There are thousands of ways that special organs warn fish about a predator.

C.

When the fish in a school work together, they can use their sense organs to scare off any approaching threat.

D.

The fish in a large school use their lateral line organs to send out warnings of the arrival of the school.

Explain:

53. The author begins paragraph 3 with “it is also unclear” in order to indicate that ................

A.

contradictory information is about to be presented

B.

it is necessary to clarify a previously made point

C.

a second issue is about to be presented

D.

it is unclear how a problem can be resolved

Explain:

54. According to paragraph 3, ................

A.

fish can see quite well in the dark

B.

sight is the only sense used by fish to remain in schools

C.

fish cannot see well

D.

not all fish use sight to remain in schools

Explain:

55. The word “murky” in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

clear

B.

warm

C.

deep

D.

cloudy

Explain:

56. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) in paragraph 3 which indicate where the sentence “The purpose of schooling behavior is not the only aspect of schooling that is not fully understood.” can be added to paragraph 3. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 4

B.

Number 1

C.

Number 3

D.

Number 2

Explain:

57. The word “This” in paragraph 3 refers to the ability of fish to ................

A.

use their sight to stay in schools

B.

see well in dark water

C.

swim in water where the visibility is low

D.

stay in schools when they cannot see well

Explain:

58. It is NOT stated in the passage that the lateral line system ................

A.

in fish is similar to sense organs in other animals

B.

contains lines of pores

C.

Explain:

59. An introductory sentence or a brief summary of the passage is: “Schooling behavior in certain fish.” Complete the summary by selecting the TWO answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

A.

Fish most likely move in schools in various types of water.

B.

Fish may move in schools by using various senses.

C.

Fish most likely move in schools in various ways.

D.

Fish may move in schools at various times of the day or night.

Explain:

60. Choose THREE sentences that relate to hypotheses related to purpose

A.

Coloration provides protection.

B.

Lateral sense organs enable some fish to school.

C.

Lateral sense organs provide protection.

D.

Coloration enables some fish to move.

E.

Sight enables some fish to school.

F.

Sight provides protection.

G.

Large numbers provide protection.

Explain:

61. Choose TWO sentences that relate to hypotheses related to manner

A.

Sight provides protection.

B.

Sight enables some fish to school.

C.

Large numbers provide protection.

D.

Coloration enables some fish to move.

E.

Coloration provides protection.

F.

Lateral sense organs enable some fish to school.

G.

Lateral sense organs provide protection.

Explain:

CARETAKER SPEECH

Children learn to construct language from those around them. Until about the age of three, children tend to learn to develop their language by modeling the speech of their parents, but from that time on, peers have a growing influence as models for language development in children. It is easy to observe that, when adults and older children interact with younger children, they tend to modify their language to improve communication with younger children, and this modified language is called caretaker speech.

Caretaker speech is used often quite unconsciously; few people actually study how to modify language when speaking to young children but, instead, without thinking, find ways to reduce the complexity of language in order to communicate effectively with young children. (1) A caretaker will unconsciously speak in one way with adults and in a very different way with young children. (2) Caretaker speech tends to be slower speech with short, simple words and sentences which are said in a higher-pitched voice with exaggerated inflections and many repetitions of essential information. (3) It is not limited to what is commonly called baby talk, which generally refers to the use of simplified, repeated syllable expressions such as ma-ma, boo-boo, bye-bye, wa-wa, but also includes the simplified sentence structures repeated in sing-song inflections. (4)

Caretaker speech serves the very important function of allowing young children to acquire language more easily. The higher-pitched voice and the exaggerated inflections tend to focus the small child on what the caretaker is saying, the simplified words and sentences make it easier for the small child to begin to comprehend, and the repetitions reinforce the child’s developing understanding. Then, as a child’s speech develops, caretakers tend to adjust their language in response to the improved language skills, again quite unconsciously. Parents and older children regularly adjust their speech to a level that is slightly above that of a younger child; without studied recognition of what they are doing, these caretakers will speak in one way to a one-year-old and in a progressively more complex way as the child reaches the age of two or three.

(1) An important point to note is that the function covered by caretaker speech, that of assisting a child to acquire language in small and simple steps, is an unconsciously used but extremely important part of the process of language acquisition and as such is quite universal. (2) Studying cultures where children do not acquire language through caretaker speech is difficult because such cultures are difficult to find. (3) The question of why caretaker speech is universal is not clearly understood; instead proponents on either side of the nature vs. nurture debate argue over whether caretaker speech is a natural function or a learned one. (4) Those who believe that caretaker speech is a natural and inherent function in humans believe that it is human nature for children to acquire language and for those around them to encourage their language acquisition naturally; the presence of a child is itself a natural stimulus that increases the rate of caretaker speech among those present. In contrast, those who believe that caretaker speech develops through nurturing rather than nature argue that a person who is attempting to communicate with a child will learn by trying out different ways of communicating to determine which is the most effective from the reactions to the communication attempts; a parent might, for example, learn to use speech with exaggerated inflections with a small child because the exaggerated inflections do a better job of attracting the child’s attention than do more subtle inflections. Whether caretaker speech results from nature or nurture, it does play an important and universal role in child language acquisition.

62. According to paragraph 1, children over the age of three ................

A.

are influenced more and more by those closer to their own age

B.

are no longer influenced by the language of their parents

C.

learn little language from those around them

D.

first begin to respond to caretaker speech

Explain:

63. The word “modeling” in paragraph 1 could best be replaced by ................

A.

demonstrating

B.

mimicking

C.

designing

D.

building

Explain:

64. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ................

A.

Young children tend to use caretaker speech quite unconsciously in order to reduce the complexity of their thoughts to language that they can express.

B.

People generally seem to be able to adapt their language to the level of a child's language without thinking consciously about it.

C.

Most people are quite aware of the use of caretaker speech because of thorough study and research about it.

D.

The unconscious use of caretaker speech involves a reduction in the complexity of language, while the conscious use of caretaker speech involves an increase in complexity.

Explain:

65. The word “It” in paragraph 2 refers to ................

A.

baby talk

B.

caretaker speech

C.

essential information

D.

a higher-pitched voice

Explain:

66. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) in paragraph 2 which indicate where the sentence “Examples of these are expressions such as “Say bye-bye” or “Where′s da-da?”” can be added to paragraph 2. Where would the sentence best fit? ................

A.

Number 2

B.

Number 1

C.

Number 3

D.

Number 4

Explain:

67. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as characteristics of caretaker speech EXCEPT ................

A.

the tendency to repeat oneself

B.

the use of easier words and structures

C.

overemphasized inflections

D.

the use of rhyming sounds

Explain:

68. It is indicated in paragraph 3 that parents tend to ................

A.

speak in basically the same way to a one-year-old and a three-year-old

B.

speak in a progressively less complex way as a child matures

C.

use language that is far above the language level of a child

D.

modify their speech according to the language development of a child

Explain:

69. The word “reaches” in paragraph 3 could best be replaced by ................

A.

takes charge of

B.

extends out to

C.

arrives at

D.

holds on to

Explain:

70. The word “that” in paragraph 4 refers to ................

A.

the function

B.

a child

C.

caretaker speech

D.

an important point

Explain:

71. Which of the sentences beiow expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ................

A.

The natural human tendency to acquire language makes caretaker speech unimportant in improving the rate of language acquisition by children.

B.

People who believe in nature over nurture feel that adults or older children who are around younger children will naturally make changes in their language.

C.

It is human nature for children to develop the use of caretaker speech in order to take part effectively in conversations around them.

D.

Caretaker speech is one of many natural functions that are used to stimulate young children to develop more rapidly.

Explain:

72. According to paragraph 4, it is NOT expected that someone who believes in nurture over nature ................

A.

would believe that caretaker speech is more of a learned style of language - than a natural one

B.

would use less caretaker speech than do those who believe in nature over nurture

C.

would use different styles of caretaker speech with children in response to what is working best

D.

would learn to use different styles of caretaker speech with different children

Explain:

73. The phrase “trying out” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

throwing away

B.

bringing about

C.

taking over

D.

experimenting with

Explain:

74. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) in paragraph 4 which indicate where the sentence “It is not merely a device used by English-speaking parents.” can be added to paragraph 4. Where would the sentence best fit? ................

A.

Number 1

B.

Number 3

C.

Number 4

D.

Number 2

Explain:

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