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THE ART OF THEATER

The means by which an art form presents its message is referred to as the medium. Thus, sound produced by instruments or human voices is the medium of music. Paint on canvas or paper is the medium of painting. For literature, the medium is written language. For theater, it is a story performed by actors on a stage.

Drama is sometimes seen as a branch of literature because plays, like literature, are often printed in book form. However, there is an important difference between the two forms. Unlike a novel, a play is written to be performed, and the script of a play is not a finished work; it is an outline for a performance. The physical production of the play - the scenery, lighting, and costumes - will affect the performance, and so will the actors. How the actors interpret their roles greatly influences the play's effect on the audience.

The basic encounter in theater is between the performers and the audience. This is a special type of encounter because the performers are playing other people, characters. Moreover, the characters are part of a human story that has been written by a dramatist. This combination of elements distinguishes theater from other art forms.

Theater has several other distinctive characteristics. First, the subject matter of theater is always human beings. Second, theater is universal - there is an impulse toward creating theater in all societies. Third, theater is transitory in nature - a play is an event that occurs through time. Finally, theater is set apart by its basic elements: audience, performers, director, dramatist, purpose, viewpoint, and setting.

Human beings and human concerns are always the subject matter of drama, even when the performers play animals, objects, or abstract ideas. In the medieval play Everyman, some of the roles are abstract ideas such as Beauty, Knowledge, and Strength. The central character is Everyman, a human character, and the subject is death arriving before we want it to come - a theme that is universal to humans. The focus of drama is on human beings, even though different human concerns have been emphasized in different plays.

In view of the human-centered quality of theater, it is not surprising that the impulse toward theater is universal. (1) The urge to create drama has existed wherever human society has developed: in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Americas. In every culture recorded in history or studied by anthropologists, we find rituals, ceremonies, and celebrations that include elements of theater. (2) At various times, these ceremonies and stories developed into a separate realm of theater. In Greece, a fully developed theater emerged almost 2,500 years ago. In India, theater became well-established around 2,000 years ago. (3) Wherever theater has become a separate art form, it has had certain essential qualities: a story - the play - is presented by one group - the performers - to another group - the audience. (4)

One special quality of a theater performance is its immediacy. In the theater, we live in the perpetual present tense. Theater is a transitory art. A performance changes from moment to moment, and each moment is a direct, immediate adventure for the audience. The transitory nature of theater is a quality it shares with music and dance, and sets it apart from literature and the visual arts. A novel or a painting is a fixed object; it exists as a finished product. The performing arts, on the other hand, are not objects but events. Theater occurs through time; it is an experience created by a series of sights, sounds, and impressions.

1. How does the art of theater convey its message?

A.

A camera converts light to images on film.

B.

An instrument or voice produces sound.

C.

A person writes a story for others to read.

D.

People perform a story for another group.

Explain:

2. The author discusses literature in paragraph 2 in order to illustrate what point?

A.

Many actors prefer roles from classic works of literature.

B.

Reading a novel and attending a play are different experiences.

C.

Literature and drama are both written forms of communication.

D.

Both novelists and dramatists use an outline to organize ideas.

Explain:

3. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 3? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.

A successful dramatist knows how to blend purpose, viewpoint, and theme into a unique performance.

B.

A play's scenery, lighting, and costumes contribute to the message of the play.

C.

Theater is a distinct art form by the way it joins characters and audience in the telling of a story.

D.

Theater is the only art form that mixes more than one medium in a single work of art.

Explain:

4. Why does the author mention “Everyman” in paragraph 5?

A.

To illustrate the universal human desire to create theater

B.

To show that the definition of theater has evolved over time

C.

To give an example of a play in which abstract ideas arc characters

D.

To compare the importance of beauty, knowledge, and strength

Explain:

5. The word “theme” in paragraph 5 refers to ................

A.

Everyman as a central character

B.

beauty, knowledge, and strength

C.

performers playing animals, objects, or ideas

D.

death arriving before we want it to come

Explain:

6. The word “urge” in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

education

B.

patience

C.

money

D.

motivation

Explain:

7. The word “realm” in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

tool

B.

ritual

C.

form

D.

science

Explain:

8. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the development of theater?

A.

Theater emerged as a distinct art form at different times around the world.

B.

Theater could not have developed without the support of political leaders.

C.

In every human society, theater appeared before other forms of art.

D.

People created theater as a way to promote peace between rival groups.

Explain:

9. The word “transitory” in paragraph 7 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

beautiful

B.

temporary

C.

expressive

D.

surprising

Explain:

10. How is theater similar to the other performing arts?

A.

It is presented the same way every time.

B.

It is based on works of literature.

C.

It is an event that occurs through time.

D.

It exists as a finished product.

Explain:

11. According to the passage, all of the following are true of theater EXCEPT ................

A.

The impulse toward theater is universal.

B.

The medium of theater is written language.

C.

The focus of theater is always human.

D.

Theater is a distinct form of art.

Explain:

12. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Thus, theater is a shared event, an experience that includes both those who perform and those who observe.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 1

B.

Number 3

C.

Number 4

D.

Number 2

Explain:

13. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is: “Several qualities distinguish theater from other forms of art.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

A.

The tendency toward creating theater occurs in all human societies.

B.

An actor must change his voice to play certain characters.

C.

Theater requires a human story, performers, and an audience.

D.

Each theater performance is an immediate yet transitory experience.

E.

Theater is a form of literature because we can read plays in books.

F.

Theater developed as a separate art very early in Greece and India.

Explain:

14. How does the art of theater convey its message?

A.

People perform a story for another group.

B.

An instrument or voice produces sound.

C.

A camera converts light to images on film.

D.

A person writes a story for others to read.

Explain:

THE ATLANTIC COD FISHERY

Off the northeastern shore of North America, from the island of Newfoundland in Canada south to New England in the United States, there is a series of shallow areas called banks. Several large banks off Newfoundland are together called the Grand Banks, huge shoals on the edge of the North American continental shelf, where the warm waters of the Gulf Stream meet the cold waters of the Labrador Current. As the currents brush each other, they stir up minerals from the ocean floor, providing nutrients for plankton and tiny shrimp-like creatures called krill, which feed on the plankton. Herring and other small fish rise to the surface to eat the krill. Groundfish, such as the Atlantic cod, live in the ocean’s bottom layer, congregating in the shallow waters where they prey on krill and small fish. This rich environment has produced cod by the millions and once had a greater density of cod than anywhere else on Earth.

Beginning in the eleventh century, boats from the ports of northwestern Europe arrived to fish the Grand Banks. For the next eight centuries, the entire Newfoundland economy was based on Europeans arriving, catching fish for a few months in the summer, and then taking fish back to European markets. Cod laid out to dry on wooden “flakes” was a common sight in the fishing villages dotting the coast. Settlers in the region used to think the only sea creature worth talking about was cod, and in the local speech the word “fish” became synonymous with cod. Newfoundland’s national dish was a pudding whose main ingredient was cod.

By the nineteenth century, the Newfoundland fishery was largely controlled by merchants based in the capital at St. John’s. They marketed the catch supplied by the fishers working out of more than 600 villages around the long coastline. In return, the merchants provided fishing equipment, clothing, and all the food that could not be grown in the island’s thin, rocky soil. This system kept the fishers in a continuous state of debt and dependence on the merchants.

Until the twentieth century, fishers believed in the cod’s ability to replenish itself and thought that overfishing was impossible. However, Newfoundland’s cod fishery began to show signs of trouble during the 1930s, when cod failed to support the fishers and thousands were unemployed. The slump lasted for the next few decades. Then, when an international agreement in 1977 established the 200-mile offshore fishing limit, the Canadian government decided to build up the modem Grand Banks fleet and make fishing a viable economic base for Newfoundland again. All of Newfoundland’s seafood companies were merged into one conglomerate. By the 1980s, the conglomerate was prospering, and cod were commanding excellent prices in the market. Consequently, there was a significant increase in the number of fishers and fish-processing plant workers.

However, while the offshore fishery was prospering, the inshore fishermen found their catches dropping off. (1) In 1992 the Canadian government responded by closing the Grand Banks to groundfishing. (2) Newfoundland’s cod fishing and processing industries were shut down in a bid to let the vanishing stocks recover. (3) The moratorium was extended in 1994, when all of the Atlantic cod fisheries in Canada were closed, except for one in Nova Scotia, and strict quotas were placed on other species of groundfish. (4) Canada’s cod fishing industry collapsed, and around 40,000 fishers and other industry workers were put out of work.

Atlantic cod stocks had once been so plentiful that early explorers joked about walking on the backs of the teeming fish. Today, cod stocks are at historically low levels and show no signs of imminent recovery, even after drastic conservation measures and severely limited fishing. Fishermen often blame the diminishing stocks on seals, which prey on cod and other species, but scientists believe that decades of overfishing are to blame. Studies on fish populations have shown that cod disappeared from Newfoundland at the same time that stocks started rebuilding in Norway, raising the possibility that the cod had migrated. Still, no one can predict whether and when the cod will return to the Grand Banks.

15. The word “shoals” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

shallows

B.

currents

C.

mountains

D.

islands

Explain:

16. What physical process occurs in the region of the Grand Banks?

A.

Tides transport plankton and small fish.

B.

Warm and cold currents come together.

C.

Nutrient-rich water flows in from rivers.

D.

Underwater hot springs heat the water.

Explain:

17. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.

The Grand Banks is the only place on Earth where cod are known to come together in extremely large groups.

B.

The environmental resources of the Grand Banks have made many people wealthy from cod fishing.

C.

The Grand Banks used to have the world's largest concentration of cod because of favorable natural conditions.

D.

Millions of cod come to the Grand Banks every year to feed on the abundant supplies of herring and other small fish.

Explain:

18. The phrase “the region” in paragraph 2 refers to ................

A.

Newfoundland

B.

northwestern Europe

C.

New England

D.

the Grand Banks

Explain:

19. Why does the author mention “Newfoundland′s national dish” in paragraph 2?

A.

To stress the economic and cultural significance of cod

B.

To show that Newfoundland used to be a separate country

C.

To encourage the development of tourism in Newfoundland

D.

To describe the daily life of people in Newfoundland

Explain:

20. All of the following statements characterized Newfoundland′s cod fishery in the past EXCEPT

A.

Cod were placed on wooden “flakes” for drying.

B.

Fishers competed with farmers for natural resources.

C.

Fishers were dependent on merchants in the capital.

D.

Cod were the foundation of the island's economy.

Explain:

21. The word “replenish” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

repair

B.

restock

C.

defend

D.

improve

Explain:

22. What event first signaled the overfishing of the Atlantic cod?

A.

The failure of cod to support thousands of fishers in the 1930s

B.

The merging of seafood companies into one huge conglomerate

C.

The government moratorium on cod fishing during the 1990s

D.

An increase in the number of fishers and fish-processing plants

Explain:

23. Why did the Canadian government decide to build up the Grand Banks fishing fleet?

A.

Canada faced stiff competition from other fishing nations.

B.

The 200-mile limit was seen as an economic opportunity.

C.

The shipbuilding sector of the economy was in a slump.

D.

There had not been enough boats to handle all the fish.

Explain:

24. The word “commanding” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

defying

B.

receiving

C.

missing

D.

suggesting

Explain:

25. It can be inferred from paragraph 6 that the author most likely believes which of the following about the future of the Atlantic cod fishery?

A.

The cod will return to the Grand Banks if seal hunting is allowed.

B.

It may be a long time before cod stocks recover from overfishing.

C.

The fishery will improve if the government lifts the fishing ban.

D.

The center of the Atlantic cod fishery will shift to Norway.

Explain:

26. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “They suspected this was because the offshore draggers were taking so many cod that the fish did not have a chance to migrate inshore to reproduce.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 4

B.

Number 3

C.

Number 2

D.

Number 1

Explain:

27. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is “The Atlantic cod fishery has shaped Newfoundland′s economy for centuries.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

A.

Despite severe limits on fishing, cod stocks remain at low levels and show few signs of recovery.

B.

Cod fishing was so successful that few people considered the possibility of overfishing until fish stocks fell.

C.

The Canadian government tried to diversity Newfoundland's economy in the 1980s.

D.

The Atlantic cod is a groundfish that preys on herring and small fish that eat krill.

E.

Atlantic cod stocks were once plentiful in the rich environment around the Grand Banks.

F.

Newfoundland exports millions of dollars worth of crab and other shellfish every year.

Explain:

CLOTHING AND COSTUME

The ancient Greeks and the Chinese believed that we first clothed our bodies for some physical reason, such as protecting ourselves from the elements. Ethnologists and psychologists have invoked psychological reasons: modesty, taboo, magical influence, or the desire to please. Anthropological research indicates that the function of the earliest clothing was to carry objects. Our hunting-gathering ancestors had to travel great distances to obtain food. For the male hunters, carrying was much easier if they were wearing simple belts or animal skins from which they could hang weapons and tools. For the female gatherers, more elaborate carrying devices were necessary. Women had to transport collected food back to the settlement and also had to carry babies, so they required bags or slings.

Another function of early clothing—providing comfort and protection—probably developed at the same time as utility. As human beings multiplied and spread out from the warm lands in which they evolved, they covered their bodies more and more to maintain body warmth. Today, we still dress to maintain warmth and to carry objects in our clothes. And like our hunting-gathering ancestors, most men still carry things on their person, as if they still needed to keep their arms free for hunting, while women tend to have a separate bag for carrying, as if they were still food-gatherers. But these two functions of clothing are only two of many uses to which we put the garments that we wear today.

There is a clear distinction between attire that constitutes “clothing” and attire that is more aptly termed “costume.” We might say that clothing has to do with covering the body, and costume concerns the choice of a particular form of garment for a particular purpose. Clothing depends primarily on such physical conditions as climate, health, and textile, while costume reflects social factors such as personal status, religious beliefs, aesthetics, and the wish to be distinguished from or to emulate others.

Even in early human history, costume fulfilled a function beyond that of simple utility. (1) Costume helped to impose authority or inspire fear. A chieftain’s costume embodied attributes expressing his power, while a warrior’s costume enhanced his physical superiority and suggested he was superhuman. Costume often had a magical significance such as investing humans with the attributes of other creatures through the addition of ornaments to identify the wearer with animals, gods, or heroes. (2) In more recent times, professional or administrative costume is designed to distinguish the wearer and to express personal or delegated authority. (3) Costume communicates the status of the wearer, and with very few exceptions, the aim is to display as high a status as possible. Costume denotes power, and since power is often equated with wealth, costume has come to be an expression of social class and material prosperity. (4)

A uniform is a type of costume that serves the important function of displaying membership in a group: school, sports team, occupation, or armed force. Military uniform denotes rank and is intended not only to express group membership but also to protect the body and to intimidate. A soldier’s uniform says, “I am part of a powerful machine, and when you deal with me, you deal with my whole organization.” Uniforms are immediate beacons of power and authority. If a person needs to display power—a police officer, for example—then the body can be virtually transformed. Height can be exaggerated with protective headgear, thick clothing can make the body look broader and stronger, and boots can enhance the power of the legs. Uniforms also convey low social status; at the bottom of the scale, the uniform of the prisoner denotes membership in the society of convicted criminals.

Religious costume signifies spiritual or superhuman authority and possesses a significance that identifies the wearer with a belief or god. A successful clergy has always displayed impressive vestments of one kind or another that clearly demonstrate the religious leader’s dominant status.

28. According to the passage, psychological reasons for wearing clothing include ................

A.

the availability of materials

B.

prevention of illness

C.

the wish to give pleasure

D.

protection from cold weather

Explain:

29. According to the passage, what aspect of humanity′s hunting-gathering past is reflected in the clothing of today?

A.

People cover their bodies because of modesty.

B.

Women like clothes that are beautiful and practical.

C.

Most men still carry objects on their person.

D.

Men wear pants, but women wear skirts or pants.

Explain:

30. The phrase “these two functions” in paragraph 2 refers to ................

A.

maintaining warmth and carrying objects

B.

hunting and gathering food

C.

displaying power and social status

D.

transporting food and carrying babies

Explain:

31. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 3? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.

People spend more time in choosing special costumes than they do in selecting everyday clothing.

B.

Clothing serves a physical purpose, while costume has a personal, social, or psychological function.

C.

Both clothing and costume are types of attire, but it is often difficult to distinguish between them.

D.

We like clothing to fit our body well, but different costumes fit differently depending on the purpose.

Explain:

32. The word “ornaments” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

feathers

B.

layers

C.

decorations

D.

words

Explain:

33. It can be inferred from paragraph 4 that the author most likely believes which of the following about costume?

A.

We can learn about a society's social structure by studying costume.

B.

Costume is rarely a reliable indicator of a person's material wealth.

C.

The main purpose of costume is to force people to obey their leaders.

D.

Costume used to serve a simple function, but now it is very complex.

Explain:

34. The word “beacons” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

reversals

B.

lights

C.

signals

D.

inventions

Explain:

35. Why does the author discuss the police officer′s uniform in paragraph 5?

A.

To describe the aesthetic aspects of costume

B.

To suggest that police are superhuman

C.

To show how costume conveys authority

D.

To identify the wearer with a hero

Explain:

36. All of the following are likely to be indicated by a person′s costume EXCEPT ................

A.

having a heart condition

B.

playing on a football team

C.

being a prisoner

D.

leading a religious ceremony

Explain:

37. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Such power is seen clearly in the judge′s robes and the police officer′s uniform.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 4

B.

Number 1

C.

Number 3

D.

Number 2

Explain:

38. Choose THREE sentences that describe the clothing

A.

Conveys personal, administrative, or superhuman authority

B.

Depends on physical conditions such as climate and health

C.

Enabled early humans to carry the objects needed to obtain food

D.

Serves as a symbol that unites all people on the earth

E.

Indicates the dominant status of religions leader

F.

Shows that a person is a member of a particular group

G.

Reflects social factors such as personal status or material prosperity

H.

Makes it for people to perform dangerous work

I.

Provides comfort, warmth, and protection from the weather

Explain:

39. Choose FOUR sentences that describe the costume

A.

Conveys personal, administrative, or superhuman authority

B.

Provides comfort, warmth, and protection from the weather

C.

Indicates the dominant status of religions leaders

D.

Serves as a symbol that unites all people on the earth

E.

Enabled early humans to carry the objects needed to obtain food

F.

Reflects social factors such as personal status or material prosperity

G.

Shows that a person is a member of a particular group

H.

Depends on physical conditions such as climate and health

I.

Makes it legal for people to perform dangerous work

Explain:

FEEDING HABITS OF EAST AFRICAN HERBIVORES

Buffalo, zebras, wildebeests, topi, and Thomson's gazelles live in huge groups that together make up some 90 percent of the total weight of mammals living on the Serengeti Plain of East Africa. They are all herbivores (plant-eating animals), and they all appear to be living on the same diet of grasses, herbs, and small bushes. This appearance, however, is illusory. When biologist Richard Bell and his colleagues analyzed the stomach contents of four of the five species (they did not study buffalo), they found that each species was living on a different part of the vegetation. The different vegetational parts differ in their food qualities: lower down, there are succulent, nutritious leaves; higher up are the harder stems. There are also sparsely distributed, highly nutritious fruits, and Bell found that only the Thomson's gazelles eat much of these. The other three species differ in the proportion of lower leaves and higher stems that they eat: zebras eat the most stem matter, wildebeests eat the most leaves, and topi are intermediate.

How are we to understand their different feeding preferences? The answer lies in two associated differences among the species, in their digestive systems and body sizes. According to their digestive systems, these herbivores can be divided into two categories: the nonruminants (such as the zebra, which has a digestive system like a horse) and the ruminants (such as the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle, which are like the cow). Nonruminants cannot extract much energy from the hard parts of a plant; however, this is more than made up for by the fast speed at which food passes through their guts. Thus, when there is only a short supply of poor-quality food, the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle enjoy an advantage. They are ruminants and have a special structure (the rumen) in their stomachs, which contains microorganisms that can break down the hard parts of plants. Food passes only slowly through the ruminant's gut because ruminating—digesting the hard parts—takes time. The ruminant continually regurgitates food from its stomach back to its mouth to chew it up further (that is what a cow is doing when "chewing cud"). Only when it has been chewed up and digested almost to a liquid can the food pass through the rumen and on through the gut. Larger particles cannot pass through until they have been chewed down to size. Therefore, when food is in short supply, a ruminant can last longer than a nonruminant because it can derive more energy out of the same food. The difference can partially explain the eating habits of the Serengeti herbivores. The zebra chooses areas where there is more low-quality food. It migrates first to unexploited areas and chomps the abundant low-quality stems before moving on. It is a fast-in/fast-out feeder, relying on a high output of incompletely digested food. By the time the wildebeests (and other ruminants) arrive, the grazing and trampling of the zebras will have worn the vegetation down. As the ruminants then set to work, they eat down to the lower, leafier parts of the vegetation. All of this fits in with the differences in stomach contents with which we began.

The other part of the explanation is body size. Larger animals require more food than smaller animals, but smaller animals have a higher metabolic rate. Smaller animals can therefore live where there is less food, provided that such food is of high energy content. That is why the smallest of the herbivores, Thomson's gazelle, lives on fruit that is very nutritious but too thin on the ground to support a larger animal. By contrast, the large zebra lives on the masses of low-quality stem material.

The differences in feeding preferences lead, in turn, to differences in migratory habits. (1) The wildebeests follow, in their migration, the pattern of local rainfall. (2) The other species do likewise. (3) But when a new area is fueled by rain, the mammals migrate toward it in a set order to exploit it. (4) The larger, less fastidious feeders, the zebras, move in first; the choosier, smaller wildebeests come later; and the smallest species of all, Thomson's gazelle, arrives last. The later species all depend on the preparations of the earlier one, for the actions of the zebra alter the vegetation to suit the stomachs of the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle.

40. The word “illusory” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

A.

exceptional

B.

definite

C.

misleading

D.

illuminating

Explain:

41. The word “sparsely” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

A.

freshly

B.

thinly

C.

widely

D.

clearly

Explain:

42. Which of the following questions about Richard Bell′s research is NOT answered in paragraph 1?

A.

Which part of the plants do wildebeests prefer to eat?

B.

Where did the study of herbivores' eating habits take place?

C.

Why were buffalo excluded from the research study?

D.

Which of the herbivores studied is the only one to eat much fruit?

Explain:

43. The word "associated” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

A.

connected

B.

expected

C.

significant

D.

obvious

Explain:

44. The author mentions the cow and the horse in paragraph 2 in order to

A.

illustrate differences between ruminants and nonruminants through the use of animals likely to be familiar to most readers

B.

emphasize that their relatively large body size leads them to have feeding practices similar to those of East African mammals

C.

emphasize similarities between the diets of cows and horses and the diets of East African mammals

D.

distinguish the functioning of their digestive systems from those of East African mammals

Explain:

45. According to paragraph 2, which of the following herbivores has to eat large quantities of plant stems be-cause it gains relatively little energy from each given quantity of this food?

A.

The wildebeest

B.

The zebra

C.

The topi

D.

The gazelle

Explain:

46. Paragraph 2 suggests that which of the following is one of the most important factors in determining differences in feeding preferences of East African herbivores?

A.

The availability of certain foods

B.

The ability to migrate when food supplies are low

C.

The differences in stomach structure

D.

The physical nature of vegetation in the environment

Explain:

47. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of East African gazelles EXCEPT ................

A.

They are unable to digest large food particles unless these are chewed down considerably.

B.

They digest their food very quickly.

C.

Microorganisms help them digest their food.

D.

They survive well even if food sup-plies are not abundant.

Explain:

48. The phrase “provided that” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

A.

as if

B.

even though

C.

unless

D.

as long as

Explain:

49. The word “fastidious” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

A.

determined

B.

rapid

C.

flexible

D.

demanding

Explain:

50. According to paragraph 4, which of the following mammals exhibits a feeding behavior that is beneficial to the other herbivores that share the same habitat?

A.

Gazelle

B.

Wildebeest

C.

Topi

D.

Zebra

Explain:

51. According to the passage, which of the following is true of wildebeests?

A.

They tend to choose feeding areas in which the vegetation has been worn down.

B.

They are likely to choose low-quality food to eat in periods when the quantity of rainfall is low.

C.

They are able to digest large food particles if the food is of a high quality.

D.

They eat more stem matter than zebras do.

Explain:

52. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “The sequence in which they migrate correlates with their body size.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 2

B.

Number 3

C.

Number 4

D.

Number 4

Explain:

53. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is “East African herbivores, though they all live in the same environment, have a range of feeding preferences.”. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

A.

Migratory habits are influenced by feeding preferences.

B.

Zebras and wildebeests rarely compete for the same food resources in the same locations.

C.

The different digestive systems of herbivores explain their feeding preferences.

D.

A herbivore's size and metabolic rate affect the kinds of food and the quantities of food it needs to eat.

E.

Patterns in the migratory habits of East African herbivores are hard to establish.

F.

The survival of East African mammals depends more than anything else on the quantity of highly nutritious fruits that they are able to find.

Explain:

LIMNERS

The earliest known American painters, who were active in the latter part of the seventeenth century and the early part of the eighteenth century, were described in documents, journals, and letters of the time as limners. Most of the paintings created by limners were portraits, and they were unsigned because the finished pieces did not belong to the limners who created them but were instead the possessions of the subjects in the portraits. The portraits today are named after the Subjects portrayed in them, and a particular artist is known only as the creator of a particular portrait; thus a particular portrait is named Mrs. Elizabeth Freake and Baby Mary after the people in the portrait, and the limner who created the portrait is known only as the Freake Limner. Art historians who specialize in art from this era have been able to identify clusters of portraits painted by each of a number of limners but, in many cases, do not know the name of the actual limner.

As can be seen from the fact that portraits created by limners went unsigned, limners were regarded more as artisans or skilled tradesmen than as artists. They earned their living as many artisans and tradesmen did at the time, as itinerant workers moving from town to town offering their services to either those who could pay or, more likely, to those who had goods or services to offer in return. They were able to paint portraits for those desiring to have a tangible representation of a family member for posterity; they also took on a variety of other types of painting jobs to stay employed, such as painting the walls of buildings, painting signs for businesses, and painting furniture.

(1) Some of the early portraitists most likely received their education in art or trained as artisans in Europe prior to their arrival in America and then trained others in America in their craft; because they were working in undeveloped or minimally developed colonial areas, their lives were quite difficult. (2) They had little access to information about the world of art and little access to art supplies, so they needed to mix their own paints and make their own brushes and stretched canvasses. (3) They also needed to be prepared to take on whatever painting jobs were needed to survive. (4)

There seem to be two broad categories of painting styles used by the portraitists, the style of the New England limners and the style of the New York limners. The style of the New England limners was a decorative style with flat characters, characters that seemed to lack mass and volume. This is not because the New England limners had no knowledge of painting techniques but was instead because the New England limners were using the style of Tudor painting that became popular during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, a style that included characters with a flat woodenness yet with the numerous highly decorative touches and frills popular in the English court.

The New York limners had a rather different style from the New England limners, and this was because New York had a different background from the rest of New England. Much of New England had been colonized by the English, and thus the basis for the style of the New England limners was the Tudor style that had been popularized during the reign of the Tudor queen Elizabeth I. However, the Dutch had settled the colony of New Amsterdam, and though New Amsterdam became an English colony in 1664 and was renamed New York, the Dutch character and influence was strongly in place during the era of the limners. The New York limners, as a result, were influenced by the Dutch artists of the time rather than the Tudor artists. Dutch art, unlike the more flowery Tudor art, was considerably more sober and prosaic. In addition, the New York limners lacked the flat portrayals of characters of the New England limners and instead made use of light and shade to create more lifelike portraits.

54. The word “pieces” in paragraph 1 could best be replaced by ................

A.

works

B.

parts

C.

ideas

D.

fragments

Explain:

55. The word “them” in paragraph 1 refers to ................

A.

subjects

B.

possessions

C.

limners

D.

portraits

Explain:

56. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 1? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A.

Certain groups of portraits are known to have been painted by the same limner, though the limner's name is often not known.

B.

People studying art have been able to identify clusters of artists who had.painted portraits of the same subjects.

C.

Artists from the era of limners painted clusters of portraits without knowing whom they were painting.

D.

Art historians have been able to identify characteristics in paintings indicating that the paintings were created by limners.

Explain:

57. The word “itinerant” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

uneducated

B.

professional

C.

successful

D.

wandering

Explain:

58. It is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 that a limner might ................

A.

offer his services in return for other services

B.

work as a carpenter

C.

paint a house

D.

receive pay for a painting

Explain:

59. The word “posterity” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

delayed gratification

B.

future generations

C.

prominent display

D.

social acceptance

Explain:

60. It can be inferred from paragraph 3 that limners ................

A.

were held in high esteem by the population

B.

would not possibly have had any formal training

C.

were quite knowledgeable about the world of art

D.

were not all formally trained artists

Explain:

61. The phrase “take on” in paragraph 3 could best be replaced by ................

A.

attack

B.

admit

C.

allow

D.

accept

Explain:

62. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Few limners were formally trained artists.” can be added to paragraph 3. Where would the sentence best fit?

A.

Number 4

B.

Number 3

C.

Number 2

D.

Number 1

Explain:

63. Why does the author state that “the Dutch had settled the colony of New Amsterdam in a passage about limners”?

A.

To give a reason for the highly flowery Dutch paintings

B.

To indicate why the Tudor style of painting was possible

C.

To provide background information about the New England limners

D.

To explain why the style of the New York limners differed from that of the New England limners

Explain:

64. It is stated in the passage that New Amsterdam ................

A.

moved from English control to Dutch control

B.

was a Dutch colony after 1664

C.

later became New York

D.

was settled by the English

Explain:

65. The word “prosaic” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................

A.

realistic

B.

strict

C.

lively

D.

poetic

Explain:

66. Choose TWO phrases that describe only the New York limners

A.

Had flat characters and lots of ornamentation

B.

Used a Tudor style of painting

C.

Had flat characters with little ornamentation

D.

Painted for Queen Elizabeth I

E.

Were influenced by the Dutch style of painting

F.

Had more lifelike characters and less ornamentation

G.

Earned a living by traveling from town to town

H.

Did not sign portraits

Explain:

67. Choose TWO phrases that describe only the New England limners

A.

Had flat characters with little ornamentation

B.

Earned a living by traveling from town to town

C.

Painted for Queen Elizabeth I

D.

Used a Tudor style of painting

E.

Had more lifelike characters and less ornamentation

F.

Were influenced by the Dutch style of painting

G.

Had flat characters and lots of ornamentation

H.

Did not sign portraits

Explain:

68. Choose TWO phrases that describe both the New York and New England limners

A.

Used a Tudor style of painting

B.

Had flat characters and lots of ornamentation

C.

Were influenced by the Dutch style of painting

D.

Earned a living by traveling from town to town

E.

Painted for Queen Elizabeth I

F.

Did not sign portraits

G.

Had flat characters with little ornamentation

H.

Had more lifelike characters and less ornamentation

Explain:

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PARTNERS

NEWS