Online TOEFL - TOEFL trực tuyến, TOEFL, TOEIC, IELTS, TOEFL online, online TOEFL, luyện thi TOEFL, TOEFL test, test TOEFL, TOEIC online, luyện thi TOEIC, học tiếng Anh online, tiếng Anh sách giáo khoa

Nếu không nghe được Audio thì bạn vào menu Help và làm theo hướng dẫn

START

TOEFL MODEL TEST --> TOEFL iBT --> Model test

Question 1 of 100

Time: 01:00

Total time: 60:00

Script:

Listen to part of a lecture in an astronomy class.

Professor: I′m sure y′all have been following the news about Mars. A lot of spacecraft have been visiting the planet recently—some have gone into orbit around it, while others have landed on it. And, they′ve sent back a . . . an abundance of data that′s reshaping our knowledge . . . our vision of the planet in a lot of ways. Is there anything that you′ve been particularly struck by in all the news reports?

Female Student: Well, they seem to mention water a lot, which kinda surprised me as I have this picture in my head that Mars is dry . . . sorta dry and dead.

Professor: You′re not the only one. You know, for centuries, most of our knowledge of the planet came from what we saw through telescopes so, obviously, it was pretty limited—and our views of the planet were formed as much by writers . . . as they were by serious scientists. When the first science-fiction stories came out, Mars was described as being a lot like Earth except (pauses to let students finish his sentence)

Male Student: I know, the planet was red and, uh, the people were green. I′ve seen some of those old movies (half laughing, half sarcastic) what were they thinking? I mean, really . . . they (interrupted)

Professor: (interrupting) Well, it seems silly to us now but those ideas were quite imaginative and, occasionally, scary in their time. Anyway, we began to rethink our image of Mars when the first spacecraft flew by the planet in 1965 and sent pictures back to Earth. Those pictures showed a planet that looked a lot more like our moon than Earth—lots of craters and not much else. It was bitterly cold, it had a very thin atmosphere, and that atmosphere was mostly carbon dioxide. So, the view of Mars after this first flyby mission was that dry, dead planet that Lisa mentioned.

But, then there were more visits to the planet in the 1970′s—and this time the spacecraft didn′t just fly by, they orbited . . . or landed. This allowed us to receive much more detailed images of the planet and it turned out to be a pretty interesting place. Mars had . . . has a lot more than craters—it has giant volcanoes and deep canyons. It also showed signs of dried-up riverbeds and plains that had been formed by massive floods. So we concluded that there must have been water on the planet at one time—billions of years ago. Now, what does it take for water to exist?

Male Student: You need to have a warm enough temperature so that it doesn′t freeze.

Professor: That′s one thing—and the other is that you need enough atmospheric pressure, thick enough air so that the water doesn′t instantly vaporize. The Mars we see today doesn′t have either of those conditions—it is too cold and the air is too thin—but a long time ago, there may have been a thicker atmosphere that created a greenhouse effect that raised temperatures—and maybe that combination produced water on the surface of the planet. So, maybe Mars wasn′t just a dead, boring rock—maybe, it was, uh, a fascinating fossil that was once alive and dynamic—worthy of exploration. (Pause) Now, let′s jump forward a few decades to the beginning of this century, and a new generation of orbiters and landers that have been sent to Mars. Of course, the scientific instruments now surveying Mars are far more sophisticated than the instruments of the 70′s, so we′re getting all kinds of new data for analysis. And, not surprisingly, that data is challenging our notions of what Mars is like. Lisa, you mentioned that a lot of the news reports talked about water—do you remember any of the details?

Female Student: Well, they were showing these pictures of these long, uh, cuts in the ground which would be gullies here, I mean on Earth. They say that since, uh, gullies are usually formed by water, it seems like they might be evidence that water still exists on Mars but I didn′t get how that worked.

Professor: I′m not surprised. There′re a lot of theories . . . a lot of speculation . . . and some argue the formations aren′t caused by water at all. But there′re some ingenious theories that assume that there′s a lot of water right under the planet′s surface that somehow is causing the gullies to form. If we could only get a lander there . . . but the gullies aren′t in places where we can send landers yet. Anyway, if there is some kind of water activity, it may change our view of the planet once again . . . to something that′s not dead, not even a fossil, but rather a planet like Earth that undergoes cycles—think of our ice ages—over long periods of time. Maybe Mars could sustain water again at some distant date.

1. What is the lecture mainly about?

Why it has been difficult to obtain information about Mars

Various theories explaining why Mars cannot sustain life

Various causes of geological changes on Mars

The development of views about the nature of Mars

2. According to the professor, what was concluded about Mars after the first spacecraft flew by it in 1965?

It had water under its surface.

It was similar to Earth but colder.

It had at one time supported life.

It had few geological features of interest.

3. What does the professor imply about conditions on Mars billions of years ago? Choose TWO answers.

Mars was probably even drier than it is today.

Large floods were shaping the planet's surface.

The atmospheric pressure and the temperature may have been higher than they are today.

Mars was inhabited by organisms that have since become fossilized.

4. What is the possible significance of the gullies found on Mars in recent years?

They may indicate the current existence of water on Mars.

They may indicate current volcanic activity on Mars.

They may hold fossils of organisms that once existed on Mars.

They may indicate that the surface of Mars is becoming increasingly drier.

5. Listen again to part of the lecture. Why does the professor say this?

To stress that Mars is no longer interesting to explore

To describe items that the spacecraft brought back from Mars

To show how much the view of Mars changed based on new evidence

To share his interest in the study of fossils

6. Listen again to part of the lecture. Why does the student say

this: "What were they thinking?"

To express his approval

To convey his opinion

To rephrase an earlier question

To ask for clarification of a previous statement

Script:

Listen to a conversation between a student and a worker in a university office.

Office worker: Yes, how can I help you?

Student: I’m not sure if I’m in the right place . . . I’m looking for an application for the Academic Scholarship program. Is that something I can pick up here?

Office worker: Yes, you’re in the right place. Applications for the Academic Scholarship program are right here. Let me get one for you. . . . Here you are.

Student: Thanks very much. ... By the way, is there anything I need to know to complete the application, or is the application self-explanatory?

Office worker: It’s fairly self-explanatory, but let me go over a few things with you, just to be sure. .. . OK, the first really important thing is the date. The application’s due by March 1, by the end of the business day on March 1.

Student: That′s really soon . . .

Office worker: It is, and the date is absolute. No applications will be accepted after the first.

Student: I’ll have to hurry to get it done.

Office worker: You will.

Student: Anything else?

Office worker: Uh, yes . . . make sure you fill the application out completely. Every single question must be answered. If you omit any questions, your application won′t be considered.

Student: But some of these questions don′t seem to pertain to me.

Office worker: Like what, for example?

Student: Well, look, question number 20 asks about my high school ranking.

Office worker: Why doesn’t that pertain to you?

Student: Well, the high school I attended didn’t give rankings. I didn′t go to high school here in the United States, and my high school didn’t give out rankings.

Office worker: Well, for that question, just give the explanation you gave me. Just be sure not to omit any questions; if you think a question doesn′t pertain to you, then write an explanation why.

Student: OK, I can do that. . . . Anything else you can tell me?

Office worker: Well, there’re the essays. . . . You know you have to write two essays to accompany the application?

Student: Oh, my. That’s a lot of work. I assume the essay questions are included somewhere in the application?

Office worker: Yes, on page seven of the application. .. . Do you see them . . . at the bottom of the page?

Student: Yes, I see them . . . there are four questions there. ... I thought you said I needed to write two essays . . . oh . . . I see. It says to choose two of the four essay questions to answer. . . . Now, is that all I need to do? That must be all. . . .

Office worker: Well, not quite.

Student: Oh, no! What else?

Office worker: There are the letters of reference.

Student: Letters of reference? Are these letters that I write?

Office worker: (laughs) Oh, no . . . you don′t write the letters of reference yourself. You need to get three people to write letters of reference for you.

Student: Do the letters of reference need to be written by professors, or can they be written by other people?

Office worker: Two of the three letters need to be written by professors . . . you’re applying for an academic scholarship, after all.

Student: So I need two letters of reference from professors and one from someone else?

Office worker: Yes.

Student: Can the third letter of reference be written by a friend, by a student?

Office worker: No, the third letter can’t be written by a student.

Student: How about by my advisor? Would that be OK?

Office worker: That would be great.

Student: And do I need all of this by March 1st, even the letters of reference?

Office worker: All of it, if you want to be considered for the Academic Scholarship program.

7. Why does the student go to see this office worker?

To turn in an application for a scholarship

To ask for a letter of reference

To find out how to apply for a particular program

To ask for an application for university admission

8. Which items are emphasized by the office worker?

The information to be included in the reference letters

The length of the essays

The need to answer all questions

The date the completed application is due

9. Which items are NOT emphasized by the office worker?

The information to be included in the reference letters

The length of the essays

The date the completed application is due

The need to answer all questions

10. Why does the student ask about the question on high school ranking?

He thinks the question should be answered by someone else.

It seems like a question that would take too much time to answer.

It is an example of a question he finds difficult to answer.

He thinks that his high school ranking might be too low.

11. What does the advisor say about the essays?

The student needs to answer the two essay questions on page four.

The student needs to answer two of the four essay questions on page seven.

The student needs to answer all four essay questions on page seven.

The student needs to answer the four essay questions on page two.

12. What does the advisor say about the letters of reference?

The student needs three of them.

Two must be written by professors.

The student needs two of them.

Only one can be written by a professor.

Script:

An epidemiologist has been invited to speak to students in a public health class. Listen to part of the talk.

Epidemiology is the field of medicine that deals with epidemics outbreaks of disease that affect large numbers of people. As an epidemiologist, I look at factors involved in the distribution and frequency of disease in human populations.

For example, what is it about what we do or what we eat, or what our environment is, that leads one group of people to be more likely—or less likely—to develop a disease than another group of people? It′s these factors that we try to identify.

We use statistical analyses, field investigations, and a range of laboratory techniques. We try to determine the cause and distribution of a disease. We also look at how quickly the disease spreads—and by what method—so we can implement measures to control and prevent the disease. Some epidemiologists concentrate on communicable diseases, like tuberculosis and AIDS. Others focus on the growing epidemics in cancer, diabetes, and heart disease.

We gather data in a variety of ways. One way is through what we call descriptive epidemiology, or looking at the trends of diseases over time, as well as ... uh ... trends of diseases in one population relative to another. Statistics are important in descriptive epidemiology, because numbers are a useful way to simplify information.

A second approach is observational epidemiology, where we observe what people do. We take a group of people who have a disease and a group of people who don′t have a disease. We look at their patterns of eating or drinking and their medical history. We also take a group of people who’ve been exposed to something—for example, smoking—and a group of people who haven′t, and then observe them over time to see whether they develop a disease or not. In observational epidemiology, we don’t interfere in the process. We just observe it.

A third approach is experimental epidemiology, sometimes called an intervention study. Experimental research is the best way to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables. A typical experiment studies two groups of subjects. One group receives a treatment, and the other group—the control group—does not. Thus, the effectiveness of the treatment can be determined. Experimental research is the only type of research that directly attempts to influence a particular variable—called the treatment variable—as a way to test a hypothesis about cause and effect. Some examples of treatments that can be varied include the amount of iron or potassium in the diet, the amount or type of exercise one engages in per week, and the minutes of sunlight one is exposed to per day.

The Health Research Institute, of which I am the director, is mostly involved in experimental studies—I say mostly because we study treatment and non-treatment groups and then compare the outcomes. However, we do collect and study various types of data in any given year. From these different approaches —descriptive, observational, and experimental we can judge whether a particular factor causes or prevents the disease that we’re looking at.

13. What is the talk mainly about?

Epidemics around the world

Experimental studies of diseases.

Why diseases change over time

How epidemiologists gather data

14. What factors do epidemiologists study? Click on TWO answers.

What causes outbreaks of a disease

How diseases spread through populations

Stages in the treatment of a disease

Different names for the same disease

15. Based on the information in the talk, choose TWO answers that describe experimental epidemiology.

Researchers intervene to test a hypothesis about cause and effect.

A treatment group is compared with a non-treatment group.

Statistics are used to describe the trend of a disease over time.

Researchers examine the eating habits of sick and well people.

16. Based on the information in the talk, choose the answer that describes descriptive epidemiology.

Researchers examine the eating habits of sick and well people.

Researchers intervene to test a hypothesis about cause and effect.

Statistics are used to describe the trend of a disease over time.

A treatment group is compared with a non-treatment group.

17. Why do epidemiologists often study two groups of people?

To understand cultural differences in approaches to disease.

To learn why some people get a disease and others do not

To explain why some people take better care of themselves

To compare different people's attitudes toward work

18. Listen again to part of the talk. Then answer the question. Why does the speaker talk about her own work?

To inform the students that she prefers doing research to giving lectures

To show how one organization uses various approaches to epidemiology

To encourage students to work at her organization after they graduate.

To describe her organization's efforts to discover a cure for AIDS

Script:

Listen to part of a talk in a biology class.

M: Until recently, we knew almost nothing about how important bees are in maintaining natural diversity. Now we know more about them. We know, for example, that honeybees are the dominant pollinators because they play a role in pollinating four out of five food crops in North America. We also know that honeybees along with the other insects, bats, and birds that transfer pollen between flowers—all together they contribute more than ten billion dollars a year to fruit and seed production on North American farms. Pollination is one of nature’s services to farmers. So think about this: if you eliminated the pollinators, it would take the food right out of our mouths. We biologists never imagined we′d see the day when wild plants or crops suffered from pollinator scarcity. But, unfortunately, that day has come. In fact, fanners in Mexico and the U.S. are suffering the worst pollinator crisis in history. So ... what happened? Any ideas? Alicia?

W: Is it ... um ... because of natural enemies? I read something about a kind of parasite that’s killed lots of bees.

M: It’s true. An outbreak of parasitic mites has caused a steep decline in North American populations of honeybees. But parasites aren′t the only factor.

W: What about the pesticides used on farms? All those chemicals must have an effect.

M: Most definitely, yes. Pesticides are a major factor. Both wild and domesticated bees are in serious trouble because of pesticides. In California, farm chemicals are killing around ten percent of all the honeybee colonies. Agriculture in general is part of the problem. Think about this for a minute: the North American continent is a vast collection of “nectar corridors“ made up of flowering plants. These corridors stretch for thousands of miles, from Mexico to as far north as Alaska. And every year, there′s an array of migratory pollinators flying north and south with the seasons, following the flowers. The migratory corridors the flyways—are like ... uh ... something like a path of stepping-stones for the pollinators, with each “stone” being a collection of flowering plants. But our system of large-scale agriculture has interfered. During the past fifty years, millions of acres of desert in western Mexico and the southwestern United States have been turned into chemically intensive farms, planted with exotic grasses, creating huge stretches of fly way that are devoid of nectar-producing plants for migratory pollinators. What we have now are huge gaps between the stepping-stones—patches of plants here and there. A couple of migratory pollinators are worth noting. One is the lesser long nosed bat, and another is the most famous pollinator what is our most famous pollinator? Or I should say our most beautiful pollinator.

W: Oh, I know. It’s the monarch butterfly!

M: The monarch butterfly—yes. Millions of monarchs from all over the U.S. and southern Canada fly south every year in late summer. The monarch is the only butterfly that returns to a specific site year after year. Unfortunately, the herbicides used on the milkweed in the Great Plains are taking a toll on monarchs. and fewer of them are reaching their winter grounds in Mexico. Another important pollinator is the long nosed bat. These amazing animals feed on cactus flowers. What they do is, they lap up the nectar at the bottom of the flower, and then when the bat flics off to another cactus, the pollen stuck to its head is transferred to that plants flower. But the long-nosed bat is having a tough time, too. Some desert ranchers mistake them for vampire bats, and they’ve tried to poison them, or dynamite the caves where they roost.

19. What is the talk mainly about?

How flowers are pollinated

A decline in pollinator populations

The economic importance of bees

Nature's services to farmers

20. According to the professor, what factors have affected pollinator populations? Click on TWO answers.

Parasites

Air pollution

Farm chemicals

Hunting

21. Listen again to part of the talk. Then answer the question. Why does the professor say this?

To describe effects of plant disease

To describe nectar-producing plants

To show how stones improve a garden

To show the effect of agriculture on pollinators

22. Listen again to part of the talk. Then answer the question. What can be inferred about monarch butterflies?

Their diet consists mainly of other butterflies.

They are the most common butterflies in North America.

They have lived on Earth for several million years.

Their population has been reduced because of herbicides.

23. Based on the information in the talk, choose TWO answers that describe long nosed bat.

It feeds on the nectar of cactus flowers.

It has been mistaken for a similar animal.

It returns to the same site every year.

It pollinates four out of five food crops in North America.

24. Based on the information in the talk, choose the answer that describes honey bee.

It has been mistaken for a similar animal.

It returns to the same site every year.

It feeds on the nectar of cactus flowers.

It pollinates four out of five food crops in North America.

25. Based on the information in the talk, choose the answer that describes monarch butterfly.

It has been mistaken for a similar animal.

It returns to the same site every year.

It feeds on the nectar of cactus flowers.

It pollinates four out of five food crops in North America.

Script:

Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor.

M: Hi, Professor Reynolds.

W: Oh. hi, Jeff. I just read your note. You wanted to talk about something?

M: Uh, yeah, just an idea I have. I’ve been thinking— um. I was reading about what’s been going on with those houses on Fox Point.

W: You mean the slide?

M: Yeah, that’s right. The paper said a few days ago there was only one house that was affected, but this morning there was another article saying there were lots more houses involved than they previously thought, maybe as many as fifteen or twenty homes. A couple of houses have big cracks in the foundation.

W: I read the article too. It seems like nothing but bad news for the homeowners.

M: Yeah. My old boss lives out there on Fox Point. I don’t know if his house is one that’s affected. Anyway ... I was ... um ... I was sort of thinking I could write a paper on it. I remember how in your Intro to Geology course we studied gravity movements. I thought maybe ... um ... the slide on Fox Point was a case of subsidence ... um ... when the earth sinks ‘cause there′s a weakening of support. I was thinking this might be an example of settlement.

W: Settlement happens from the more or less gradual compacting of underlying material—for example, when wet soil at the surface dries and shrinks, and creates a depression. It can also happen when frozen ground melts.

M: In class you talked about the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

W: Yes. The settlement that’s caused the Tower of Pisa to lean is due to the failure of a clay layer beneath it. Engineers have been working on it for decades but still haven’t been able to stop the process.

M: There was another kind of settlement you talked about ... um ... when groundwater is removed.

W: Yes. That′s what happened in the San Joaquin Valley in California. Part of the valley floor sank 30 feet because of the removal of groundwater for irrigation. But the problem on Fox Point may not be subsidence at all. This probably has more to do with the slope, and with the amount of rain we’ve been having lately.

M: So ... it’s just a regular old mudslide, not like the Leaning Tower?

W: It’s probably not like the Leaning Tower.

M: The article did say the houses were on a slope, but it’s only slight, it’s not steep at all.

W: Mudslides are most common on intermediate slopes - 27 to 45 degrees — because these slopes are gentle enough for sediment to accumulate and steep enough for sliding. One suggestion I have is to take a look at the county’s Web site. There’s a page on the geology of the region. This area has a history of slides. There was one on Johnson Island about ten, twelve years ago.

M: Oh, really? I didn′t know that. Maybe there’s a connection.

W′: Possibly. It’s an idea to work on.

M: Well, this gives me a place to start. Thanks, Professor Reynolds. I appreciate your input.

26. Why does the student go to see the professor?

He is confused about an article that he read.

He would like to enroll in her geology course.

He needs advice about a problem with his house

He wants to discuss an idea for a paper.

27. What topic is the man mainly interested in?

Some houses that are sliding

Why a famous tower is leaning.

Effects of groundwater removal

How to build a sturdy home

28. Why does the student say this?

He wants to work as an engineer in tall buildings.

He needs information that he missed

He thinks the local slide may have a similar cause.

He would like to visit the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

29. According to the professor, where are mudslides most common?

On slopes of 27 to 45 degrees

In places where frozen ground melts

In the San Joaquin Valley of California

30 feet beneath the earth's surface

30. What will the man probably include in his research? Click on TWO answers.

A visit to a leaning tower

A study of the area's geology

an article about groundwater removal

A search for other mudslides in the area

Script:

Listen to a conversation in a university office.

M: Good afternoon. May I help you?

W: Yes, I hope so. My name is Jennifer Taylor, and I’m in the communications program. Our class is doing a radio program, and we’ll have interviews with a lot of people from all pans of campus life. We’d like to interview the new Dean of Students, if he’s willing.

M: Hmm. That sounds interesting.

W: I hope Dean Evans will agree to meet with us, and let us tape the conversation for the radio. It would be a way for the whole community to get to know him, get to know his ideas and everything ... like the kind of vision he has for the university.

M: How much time would you need?

W: Oh, probably about an hour, no more than that.

M: Hmm. I’m sure the dean would like to participate, but ... uh ... you know, his schedule is pretty tight.

W: Oh, I was afraid of that. Um ...

M: He’s tied up all this week. Everybody wants to. you know, get acquainted. But we can probably work something in. When would you like to do the interview?

W: The radio station can air the show on either the 16th or the 23rd, so we’d have to work around that.

M: Let me look at the dean’s schedule ... Let’s see ... it looks like he’s got a lot of meetings this week, and, well, most of next week, too. What about the week after that? He doesn’t have anything scheduled on Tuesday or Wednesday afternoon. Would either of those days work for you?

W: Um, yeah. I think so. How about Tuesday afternoon?

M: On Tuesday, he’s free from two o′clock till four- thirty.

W: Let’s see. I’ll be in class until two-thirty, so how about three?

M: All right. Three o’clock. Tuesday. April 15.

W: OK, that will be great. Thank you so much. This will be a great way for everyone to learn about our new dean. We really appreciate the opportunity to do this.

M: You′re really quite welcome. It’s our pleasure. In fact, I’ve put it on the dean’s calendar, and we will see you on the 15th.

W: The 15th. OK. Thank you very much.

31. What is the purpose of the conversation?

The man wants to discuss a change in the course schedule.

The man is interviewing the woman for a job in the office.

The woman wants to enroll in the communications program.

The woman is requesting an interview with the dean.

32. Why does the man say this:

To express regret that the dean is not available

To state that the dean cannot change his schedule

To apologize for the dean's confusing behavior

To let the woman know the dean is very busy

33. Why does the woman want to meet with the dean?

To ask for a letter of recommendation

To tell him that she enjoyed his lecture

To request a change in the school calendar

To learn about his ideas and vision

34. What can be inferred about the dean?

He generally does not give interviews.

He is an excellent public speaker.

He is in his office two days a week.

He has been dean for only a short time.

35. When will the meeting with the dean take place?

In two weeks

In three weeks

The next day

The next week

II.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF REFRIGERATION

Cold storage, or refrigeration, is keeping food at temperatures between 32 and 45 degrees F in order to delay the growth of microorganisms—bacteria, molds, and yeast— that cause food to spoil. Refrigeration produces few changes in food, so meats, fish, eggs, milk, fruits, and vegetables keep their original flavor, color, and nutrition. Before artificial refrigeration was invented, people stored perishable food with ice or snow to lengthen its storage time. Preserving food by keeping it in an ice-filled pit is a 4,000-year-old art. Cold storage areas were built in basements, cellars, or caves, lined with wood or straw, and packed with ice. The ice was transported from mountains, or harvested from local lakes or rivers, and delivered in large blocks to homes and businesses.

Artificial refrigeration is the process of removing heat from a substance, container, or enclosed area, to lower its temperature. The heat is moved from the inside of the container to the outside. A refrigerator uses the evaporation of a volatile liquid, or refrigerant, to absorb heat. In most types of refrigerators, the refrigerant is compressed, pumped through a pipe, and allowed to vaporize. As the liquid turns to vapor, it loses heat and gets colder because the molecules of vapor use energy to leave the liquid. The molecules left behind have less energy and so the liquid becomes colder. Thus, the air inside the refrigerator is chilled.

Scientists and inventors from around the world developed artificial refrigeration during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. (1) William Cullen demonstrated artificial refrigeration in Scotland in 1748, when he let ethyl ether boil into a partial vacuum. In 1805, American inventor Oliver Evans designed the first refrigeration machine that used vapor instead of liquid. (2) In 1842, physician John Gorrie used Evans’s design to create an air-cooling apparatus to treat yellow-fever patients in a Florida hospital. (3) Gorrie later left his medical practice and experimented with ice making, and in 1851 he was granted the first U.S. patent for mechanical refrigeration. (4) In the same year, an Australian printer, James Harrison, built an ether refrigerator after noticing that when he cleaned his type with ether it became very cold as the ether evaporated. Five years later, Harrison introduced vapor-compression refrigeration to the brewing and meatpacking industries.

Brewing was the first industry in the United States to use mechanical refrigeration extensively, and in the 1870s, commercial refrigeration was primarily directed at breweries. German-born Adolphus Busch was the first to use artificial refrigeration at his brewery in St. Louis. Before refrigeration, brewers stored their beer in caves, and production was constrained by the amount of available cave space. Brewing was strictly a local business, since beer was highly perishable and shipping it any distance would result in spoilage. Busch solved the storage problem with the commercial vapor-compression refrigerator. He solved he shipping problem with the newly invented refrigerated railcar, which was insulated with ice bunkers in each end. Air came in on the top, passed through the bunkers, and circulated through the car by gravity. In solving Busch’s spoilage and storage problems, refrigeration also revolutionized an entire industry. By 1891, nearly every brewery was equipped with mechanical refrigerating machines.

The refrigerators of today rely on the same basic principle of cooling caused by the rapid evaporation and expansion of gases. Until 1929, refrigerators used toxic gases— ammonia, methyl chloride, and sulfur dioxide—as refrigerants. After those gases accidentally killed several people, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) became the standard refrigerant. However, they were found to be harmful to the earth’s ozone layer, so refrigerators now use a refrigerant called HFC 134a, which is less harmful to the ozone.

36. What is the main reason that people developed methods of refrigeration?

They needed to slow the natural processes that cause food to spoil.

They needed a use for the ice that formed on lakes and rivers.

They wanted to improve the flavor and nutritional value of food.

They wanted to expand the production of certain industries.

Explain:

37. The word “perishable” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................

uncooked

highly

of animal origin

capable of spoiling

Explain:

38. What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about cold storage before the invention of artificial refrigeration?

It was dependent on a source of ice or snow.

It kept food cold for only about a week.

It required a container made of metal or wood.

It was not a safe method of preserving meat.

Explain:

39. Artificial refrigeration involves all of the following processes EXCEPT ................

the transfer of heat from one place to another

the pumping of water vapor through a pipe

the evaporation of a volatile liquid

the rapid expansion of certain gases

Explain:

40. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Some gases expand rapidly and give off energy when they encounter a very cold liquid.

During evaporation, the vapor molecules use energy, and the liquid becomes colder.

When kinetic energy is changed to heat energy, liquid molecules turn into vapor molecules.

It takes a lot of energy to transform a liquid into a vapor, especially when the vapor loses heat.

Explain:

41. According to the passage, who was the first person to use artificial refrigeration for a practical purpose?

Adolphus Busch

Oliver Evans

John Gorrie

William Cullen

Explain:

42. The word “it” in paragraph 3 refers to ................

type

ether

printer

refrigerator

Explain:

43. Why does the author discuss the brewing industry in paragraph 4?

To compare cave storage with mechanical refrigeration

To describe the unique problems that brewers faced

To show how refrigeration changed a whole industry

To praise the accomplishments of a prominent brewer

Explain:

44. The word “constrained” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................

spoiled

improved

restricted

alternated

Explain:

45. According to the passage, the first refrigerated railcar used what material as a cooling agent?

CFCs

Ether

Ammonia

Ice

Explain:

46. The word “toxic” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................

dense

poisonous

rare

expensive

Explain:

47. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Gorrie′s basic principle of compressing a gas, and then sending it through radiating coils to cool it, is the one most often used in refrigerators today.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Number 3

Number 1

Number 4

Number 2

Explain:

48. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is: “Methods of refrigeration have changed throughout history.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

A refrigerator has an evaporator that makes the inside of the refrigerator cold.

William Cullen developed a method of artificial refrigeration in 1748.

People used to preserve food by packing it with ice or snow in cold storage areas.

Practical uses of vapor-compression refrigeration were introduced in the nineteenth century.

Artificial refrigeration was made possible by the compression and evaporation of a volatile substance.

CFCs have not been used as refrigerants since they were found to damage the earth's ozone layer.

Explain:

THE SCIENCE OF ANTHROPOLOGY

(1) Through various methods of research, anthropologists try to fit together the pieces of the human puzzle—to discover how humanity was first achieved, what made it branch out in different directions, and why separate societies behave similarly in some ways but quite differently in other ways. (2) Anthropology, which emerged as an independent science in the late eighteenth century, has two main divisions: physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. (3) Physical anthropology focuses on human evolution and variation and uses methods of physiology, genetics, and ecology. Cultural anthropology focuses on culture and includes archaeology, social anthropology, and linguistics. (4)

Physical anthropologists are most concerned with human biology. Physical anthropologists are detectives whose mission is to solve the mystery of how humans came to be human. They ask questions about the events that led a tree-dwelling population of animals to evolve into two-legged beings with the power to learn—a power that we call intelligence. Physical anthropologists study the fossils and organic remains of once-living primates. They also study the connections between humans and other primates that are still living. Monkeys, apes, and humans have more in common with one another physically than they do with other kinds of animals. In the lab, anthropologists use the methods of physiology and genetics to investigate the composition of blood chemistry for clues to the relationship of humans to various primates. Some study the animals in the wild to find out what behaviors they share with humans. Others speculate about how the behavior of non-human primates might have shaped human bodily needs and habits.

A well-known family of physical anthropologists, the Leakeys, conducted research in East Africa indicating that human evolution centered there rather than Asia. In 1931, Louis Leakey and his wife Mary Leakey began excavating at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, where over the next forty years they discovered stone tool and hominid evidence that pushed back the dates for early humans to over 3.75 million years ago. Their son, Richard Leakey, discovered yet other types of hominid skulls in Kenya, which he wrote about in Origins (1979) and Origins Reconsidered (1992).

Like physical anthropologists, cultural anthropologists study clues about human life in the distant past; however, cultural anthropologists also look at the similarities and differences among human communities today. Some cultural anthropologists work in the field, living and working among people in societies that differ from their own. Anthropologists doing fieldwork often produce an ethnography, a written description of the daily activities of men, women, and children that tells the story of the society’s community life as a whole. Some cultural anthropologists do not work in the field but rather at research universities and museums doing the comparative and interpretive part of the job. These anthropologists, called ethnologists, sift through the ethnographies written by field anthropologists and try to discover cross-cultural patterns in marriage, child rearing, religious beliefs and practices, warfare—any subject that constitutes the human experience. They often use their findings to argue for or against particular hypotheses about people worldwide.

A cultural anthropologist who achieved worldwide fame was Margaret Mead. In 1923, Mead went to Samoa to pursue her first fieldwork assignment—-a study that resulted in her widely read book Coming of Age in Samoa (1928). Mead published ten major works during her long career, moving from studies of child rearing in the Pacific to the cultural and biological bases of gender, the nature of cultural change, the structure and functioning of complex societies, and race relations. Mead remained a pioneer in her willingness to tackle subjects of major intellectual consequence, to develop new technologies for research, and to think of new ways that anthropology could serve society.

Glossary:

- primates: the order of mammals that includes apes

- humans hominid: the family of primates of which humans are the only living species

49. The phrase “branch out” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................

hurry

originate

look

separate

Explain:

50. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

People want to know more about the behavior of animals and how some animals acquire the ability to learn.

Some animal populations have the power to ask questions and to learn from the events of the past.

There are unanswered questions about why some tree-dwelling animals have evolved only two legs.

Physical anthropologists investigate how intelligent human beings evolved from creatures that lived in trees.

Explain:

51. The word “speculate” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................

disagree

think

forget

worry

Explain:

52. Why does the author discuss the Leakey family in paragraph 3?

To give examples of fieldwork done by physical anthropologists

To compare hominid evidence from Tanzania with that from Kenya

To contradict earlier theories of human evolution

To argue for an increase in the amount of research in Africa

Explain:

53. Which of the following is of major interest to both physical and cultural anthropologists?

Child rearing in societies around the world

Religious beliefs and practices

Clues about human beings who lived long ago

Methods of physiology and genetics

Explain:

54. According to paragraph 4, cultural anthropologists who do fieldwork usually ................

discover hominid evidence indicating when humans evolved

work at universities and museums interpreting the work of others

write an account of the daily life of the people they study

develop new technologies for gathering cultural data

Explain:

55. The phrase “sift through” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ................

discuss

sort

contradict

avoid

Explain:

56. The word “They” in paragraph 4 refers to ................

museums

research universities

ethnologists

field anthropologists

Explain:

57. According to the passage, Margaret Mead wrote about all of the following subjects EXCEPT ................

relations between people of different races

the biological basis of gender

economic systems of pioneer women

the nature of cultural change

Explain:

58. It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that Margaret Mead′s work ................

made an impact on the field of anthropology

contradicted that of the Leakey family

is not widely read by anthropologists today

opened Samoa to outside influences

Explain:

59. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Anthropology is the study of the origin, development, and varieties of human beings and their societies.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Number 1

Number 2

Number 4

Number 3

Explain:

60. Choose THREE sentences that describe the Physical Anthropology

The focus is on the similarities and differences among cultures.

It is the study of the origin, history, and structure of the earth.

Researchers live and work in other societies and write ethnographies.

This field studies life on many different scales of size and time.

Researchers observe similarities between humans and other primates.

Scientists examine the fossils and skulls of early humans.

The story of humanity's origins is a major topic of investigation.

Explain:

61. Choose TWO sentences that describe the Cultural Anthropology

Scientists examine the fossils and skulls of early humans.

The focus is on the similarities and differences among cultures.

Researchers live and work in other societies and write ethnographies.

The story of humanity's origins is a major topic of investigation.

Researchers observe similarities between humans and other primates.

This field studies life on many different scales of size and time.

It is the study of the origin, history, and structure of the earth.

Explain:

THE ART OF THEATER

The means by which an art form presents its message is referred to as the medium. Thus, sound produced by instruments or human voices is the medium of music. Paint on canvas or paper is the medium of painting. For literature, the medium is written language. For theater, it is a story performed by actors on a stage.

Drama is sometimes seen as a branch of literature because plays, like literature, are often printed in book form. However, there is an important difference between the two forms. Unlike a novel, a play is written to be performed, and the script of a play is not a finished work; it is an outline for a performance. The physical production of the play - the scenery, lighting, and costumes - will affect the performance, and so will the actors. How the actors interpret their roles greatly influences the play's effect on the audience.

The basic encounter in theater is between the performers and the audience. This is a special type of encounter because the performers are playing other people, characters. Moreover, the characters are part of a human story that has been written by a dramatist. This combination of elements distinguishes theater from other art forms.

Theater has several other distinctive characteristics. First, the subject matter of theater is always human beings. Second, theater is universal - there is an impulse toward creating theater in all societies. Third, theater is transitory in nature - a play is an event that occurs through time. Finally, theater is set apart by its basic elements: audience, performers, director, dramatist, purpose, viewpoint, and setting.

Human beings and human concerns are always the subject matter of drama, even when the performers play animals, objects, or abstract ideas. In the medieval play Everyman, some of the roles are abstract ideas such as Beauty, Knowledge, and Strength. The central character is Everyman, a human character, and the subject is death arriving before we want it to come - a theme that is universal to humans. The focus of drama is on human beings, even though different human concerns have been emphasized in different plays.

In view of the human-centered quality of theater, it is not surprising that the impulse toward theater is universal. (1) The urge to create drama has existed wherever human society has developed: in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Americas. In every culture recorded in history or studied by anthropologists, we find rituals, ceremonies, and celebrations that include elements of theater. (2) At various times, these ceremonies and stories developed into a separate realm of theater. In Greece, a fully developed theater emerged almost 2,500 years ago. In India, theater became well-established around 2,000 years ago. (3) Wherever theater has become a separate art form, it has had certain essential qualities: a story - the play - is presented by one group - the performers - to another group - the audience. (4)

One special quality of a theater performance is its immediacy. In the theater, we live in the perpetual present tense. Theater is a transitory art. A performance changes from moment to moment, and each moment is a direct, immediate adventure for the audience. The transitory nature of theater is a quality it shares with music and dance, and sets it apart from literature and the visual arts. A novel or a painting is a fixed object; it exists as a finished product. The performing arts, on the other hand, are not objects but events. Theater occurs through time; it is an experience created by a series of sights, sounds, and impressions.

62. How does the art of theater convey its message?

A person writes a story for others to read.

An instrument or voice produces sound.

People perform a story for another group.

A camera converts light to images on film.

Explain:

63. The author discusses literature in paragraph 2 in order to illustrate what point?

Literature and drama are both written forms of communication.

Reading a novel and attending a play are different experiences.

Both novelists and dramatists use an outline to organize ideas.

Many actors prefer roles from classic works of literature.

Explain:

64. Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 3? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Theater is the only art form that mixes more than one medium in a single work of art.

A successful dramatist knows how to blend purpose, viewpoint, and theme into a unique performance.

Theater is a distinct art form by the way it joins characters and audience in the telling of a story.

A play's scenery, lighting, and costumes contribute to the message of the play.

Explain:

65. Why does the author mention “Everyman” in paragraph 5?

To show that the definition of theater has evolved over time

To give an example of a play in which abstract ideas arc characters

To illustrate the universal human desire to create theater

To compare the importance of beauty, knowledge, and strength

Explain:

66. The word “theme” in paragraph 5 refers to ................

Everyman as a central character

beauty, knowledge, and strength

death arriving before we want it to come

performers playing animals, objects, or ideas

Explain:

67. The word “urge” in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to ................

patience

money

motivation

education

Explain:

68. The word “realm” in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to ................

ritual

tool

form

science

Explain:

69. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the development of theater?

In every human society, theater appeared before other forms of art.

Theater could not have developed without the support of political leaders.

People created theater as a way to promote peace between rival groups.

Theater emerged as a distinct art form at different times around the world.

Explain:

70. The word “transitory” in paragraph 7 is closest in meaning to ................

temporary

expressive

surprising

beautiful

Explain:

71. How is theater similar to the other performing arts?

It is an event that occurs through time.

It exists as a finished product.

It is presented the same way every time.

It is based on works of literature.

Explain:

72. According to the passage, all of the following are true of theater EXCEPT ................

Theater is a distinct form of art.

The impulse toward theater is universal.

The focus of theater is always human.

The medium of theater is written language.

Explain: