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TOEFL MODEL TEST --> TOEFL iBT --> Model test

Question 1 of 100

Time: 01:00

Total time: 60:00

Script:

Listen to a lecture in a gemology class.

Today, I’ll be talking about different styles of gem-cutting, particularly about how these different styles developed historically. The various styles of gems that I’ll be talking about are the cabochon, the table cut, the rose cut, and the brilliant cut.

The first style of gem-cutting, which you can see in this drawing, is the cabochon. The cabochon is a rounded shape, without facets. The cabochon style is quite old. It was the earliest style used to finish gems. The cabochons in these drawings are shown from the side.

A cabochon could be a simple cabochon, with a rounded top and a flat bottom, or it could be a double cabochon, which is rounded on both the top and the bottom. It was discovered early on that powders of harder materials such as diamonds could be used to polish gemstones, and many ancient cultures used this method to finish gems.

The cabochon cut was not a faceted cut. A facet, for those of you who don’t know, is a flat surface cut into a gem. It′s not clear when faceting of stones first developed. Stones were faceted as early as the fifteenth century in Europe, and they may have been faceted earlier than that in other cultures.

Now, we’ll look at one of the earliest styles of faceted gems, the table cut. You can see a table-cut stone, from the top and from the side, in these drawings.

An interesting thing to note is that early stones faceted in this way were probably not actually cut but were polished to this shape, using powders of harder stones such as diamonds. It does look like it was cut, but this stone was polished to this shape. Some stones, including diamonds, occur naturally in eight-sided double pyramids. To create a table cut from an eight-sided double pyramid, it’s necessary only to polish a flat surface on the top of one side of the naturally occurring eight-sided shapes.

The next stage in the development of gem-cutting is the rose cut. In a rose cut, a stone is actually cut rather than polished. This was one of the earliest methods of faceting the entire surface of a diamond, or other gem . . . It′s a very pretty cut, isn’t it? As you can tell from its name, it’s supposed to look like a rose in bloom. The rose cut involved cutting up to 32 triangular facets on the top of a diamond and a flat surface on the bottom. You can see a rose cut in the drawing from the top and from the bottom. . . . Oh, excuse me, that′s a top view and a side view. There’s no bottom view of the rose cut. . . . Now, you should note that this type of cut was beneficial because it maintained much of the original stone. However, it doesn’t reflect light in a way that maximizes the stone’s shine and brilliance. Because it doesn’t reflect light as well as other cuts, the rose cut’s no longer used much today.

The last type of cut we′ll look at is the brilliant cut. The brilliant cut came into use after the other styles. You can see a brilliant cut from the top and from the side and from the bottom. The brilliant cut’s faceted on the sides and top and also on the bottom. A stone with a brilliant cut in the correct proportion reflects the maximum amount of light out through the top of the stone and creates a stone that, as its name indicates, shines the most brilliantly. This style of stone is used quite often today because it′s so reflective.

We′ve seen four different styles of gems today, in the order that they developed historically. Two of them, the cabochon and the table cut, are polished rather than cut to create the style, while the other two are actually cut. Before next class, please look over the photos of gems at the end of the chapter and identify the style of each stone.

1. How does the professor present the different styles of gems?

From the least expensive to the most expensive

From the simplest to the most complex

From the least common to the most common

From the oldest to the most recently developed

2. Which gemstone cuts are unfaceted?

Cabochon

Rose cut

Table cut

Brilliant cut

3. Which gemstone cuts are faceted only on the top?

Rose cut

Brilliant cut

Table cut

Cabochon

4. Which gemstone cuts are faceted on the top and bottom?

Brilliant cut

Table cut

Rose cut

Cabochon

5. What does the professor say about faceting?

It may have been done earlier than the fifteenth century.

It was not done until after the fifteenth century.

It was not done earlier than the fifteenth century

It was done in the fifteenth century.

6. Which style of gem is no longer used much because it does not reflect light well?

The cabochon

The brilliant cut

The table cut

The rose cut

7. What overall conclusion can be drawn from the lecture?

That the polishing of gemstones developed as a result of the cutting of gemstones

That the cutting of gemstones developed earlier than the polishing of gemstones

That the cutting of gemstones developed at the same time as the polishing of gemstones

That the polishing of gemstones developed earlier than the cutting of gemstones

8. What is the assignment for the next class?

To polish some gems

To read about some gems

To cut some gems

To identify the style of some gems

Script:

Listen to part of a lecture in an astronomy class.

Professor: I′m sure y′all have been following the news about Mars. A lot of spacecraft have been visiting the planet recently—some have gone into orbit around it, while others have landed on it. And, they′ve sent back a . . . an abundance of data that′s reshaping our knowledge . . . our vision of the planet in a lot of ways. Is there anything that you′ve been particularly struck by in all the news reports?

Female Student: Well, they seem to mention water a lot, which kinda surprised me as I have this picture in my head that Mars is dry . . . sorta dry and dead.

Professor: You′re not the only one. You know, for centuries, most of our knowledge of the planet came from what we saw through telescopes so, obviously, it was pretty limited—and our views of the planet were formed as much by writers . . . as they were by serious scientists. When the first science-fiction stories came out, Mars was described as being a lot like Earth except (pauses to let students finish his sentence)

Male Student: I know, the planet was red and, uh, the people were green. I′ve seen some of those old movies (half laughing, half sarcastic) what were they thinking? I mean, really . . . they (interrupted)

Professor: (interrupting) Well, it seems silly to us now but those ideas were quite imaginative and, occasionally, scary in their time. Anyway, we began to rethink our image of Mars when the first spacecraft flew by the planet in 1965 and sent pictures back to Earth. Those pictures showed a planet that looked a lot more like our moon than Earth—lots of craters and not much else. It was bitterly cold, it had a very thin atmosphere, and that atmosphere was mostly carbon dioxide. So, the view of Mars after this first flyby mission was that dry, dead planet that Lisa mentioned.

But, then there were more visits to the planet in the 1970′s—and this time the spacecraft didn′t just fly by, they orbited . . . or landed. This allowed us to receive much more detailed images of the planet and it turned out to be a pretty interesting place. Mars had . . . has a lot more than craters—it has giant volcanoes and deep canyons. It also showed signs of dried-up riverbeds and plains that had been formed by massive floods. So we concluded that there must have been water on the planet at one time—billions of years ago. Now, what does it take for water to exist?

Male Student: You need to have a warm enough temperature so that it doesn′t freeze.

Professor: That′s one thing—and the other is that you need enough atmospheric pressure, thick enough air so that the water doesn′t instantly vaporize. The Mars we see today doesn′t have either of those conditions—it is too cold and the air is too thin—but a long time ago, there may have been a thicker atmosphere that created a greenhouse effect that raised temperatures—and maybe that combination produced water on the surface of the planet. So, maybe Mars wasn′t just a dead, boring rock—maybe, it was, uh, a fascinating fossil that was once alive and dynamic—worthy of exploration. (Pause) Now, let′s jump forward a few decades to the beginning of this century, and a new generation of orbiters and landers that have been sent to Mars. Of course, the scientific instruments now surveying Mars are far more sophisticated than the instruments of the 70′s, so we′re getting all kinds of new data for analysis. And, not surprisingly, that data is challenging our notions of what Mars is like. Lisa, you mentioned that a lot of the news reports talked about water—do you remember any of the details?

Female Student: Well, they were showing these pictures of these long, uh, cuts in the ground which would be gullies here, I mean on Earth. They say that since, uh, gullies are usually formed by water, it seems like they might be evidence that water still exists on Mars but I didn′t get how that worked.

Professor: I′m not surprised. There′re a lot of theories . . . a lot of speculation . . . and some argue the formations aren′t caused by water at all. But there′re some ingenious theories that assume that there′s a lot of water right under the planet′s surface that somehow is causing the gullies to form. If we could only get a lander there . . . but the gullies aren′t in places where we can send landers yet. Anyway, if there is some kind of water activity, it may change our view of the planet once again . . . to something that′s not dead, not even a fossil, but rather a planet like Earth that undergoes cycles—think of our ice ages—over long periods of time. Maybe Mars could sustain water again at some distant date.

9. What is the lecture mainly about?

Various causes of geological changes on Mars

Why it has been difficult to obtain information about Mars

Various theories explaining why Mars cannot sustain life

The development of views about the nature of Mars

10. According to the professor, what was concluded about Mars after the first spacecraft flew by it in 1965?

It had few geological features of interest.

It was similar to Earth but colder.

It had at one time supported life.

It had water under its surface.

11. What does the professor imply about conditions on Mars billions of years ago? Choose TWO answers.

The atmospheric pressure and the temperature may have been higher than they are today.

Large floods were shaping the planet's surface.

Mars was inhabited by organisms that have since become fossilized.

Mars was probably even drier than it is today.

12. What is the possible significance of the gullies found on Mars in recent years?

They may hold fossils of organisms that once existed on Mars.

They may indicate the current existence of water on Mars.

They may indicate current volcanic activity on Mars.

They may indicate that the surface of Mars is becoming increasingly drier.

13. Listen again to part of the lecture. Why does the professor say this?

To share his interest in the study of fossils

To stress that Mars is no longer interesting to explore

To show how much the view of Mars changed based on new evidence

To describe items that the spacecraft brought back from Mars

14. Listen again to part of the lecture. Why does the student say

this: "What were they thinking?"

To express his approval

To ask for clarification of a previous statement

To convey his opinion

To rephrase an earlier question

Script:

Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor.

M: Hi, Professor Reynolds.

W: Oh. hi, Jeff. I just read your note. You wanted to talk about something?

M: Uh, yeah, just an idea I have. I’ve been thinking— um. I was reading about what’s been going on with those houses on Fox Point.

W: You mean the slide?

M: Yeah, that’s right. The paper said a few days ago there was only one house that was affected, but this morning there was another article saying there were lots more houses involved than they previously thought, maybe as many as fifteen or twenty homes. A couple of houses have big cracks in the foundation.

W: I read the article too. It seems like nothing but bad news for the homeowners.

M: Yeah. My old boss lives out there on Fox Point. I don’t know if his house is one that’s affected. Anyway ... I was ... um ... I was sort of thinking I could write a paper on it. I remember how in your Intro to Geology course we studied gravity movements. I thought maybe ... um ... the slide on Fox Point was a case of subsidence ... um ... when the earth sinks ‘cause there′s a weakening of support. I was thinking this might be an example of settlement.

W: Settlement happens from the more or less gradual compacting of underlying material—for example, when wet soil at the surface dries and shrinks, and creates a depression. It can also happen when frozen ground melts.

M: In class you talked about the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

W: Yes. The settlement that’s caused the Tower of Pisa to lean is due to the failure of a clay layer beneath it. Engineers have been working on it for decades but still haven’t been able to stop the process.

M: There was another kind of settlement you talked about ... um ... when groundwater is removed.

W: Yes. That′s what happened in the San Joaquin Valley in California. Part of the valley floor sank 30 feet because of the removal of groundwater for irrigation. But the problem on Fox Point may not be subsidence at all. This probably has more to do with the slope, and with the amount of rain we’ve been having lately.

M: So ... it’s just a regular old mudslide, not like the Leaning Tower?

W: It’s probably not like the Leaning Tower.

M: The article did say the houses were on a slope, but it’s only slight, it’s not steep at all.

W: Mudslides are most common on intermediate slopes - 27 to 45 degrees — because these slopes are gentle enough for sediment to accumulate and steep enough for sliding. One suggestion I have is to take a look at the county’s Web site. There’s a page on the geology of the region. This area has a history of slides. There was one on Johnson Island about ten, twelve years ago.

M: Oh, really? I didn′t know that. Maybe there’s a connection.

W′: Possibly. It’s an idea to work on.

M: Well, this gives me a place to start. Thanks, Professor Reynolds. I appreciate your input.

15. Why does the student go to see the professor?

He would like to enroll in her geology course.

He wants to discuss an idea for a paper.

He needs advice about a problem with his house

He is confused about an article that he read.

16. What topic is the man mainly interested in?

How to build a sturdy home

Effects of groundwater removal

Some houses that are sliding

Why a famous tower is leaning.

17. Why does the student say this?

He wants to work as an engineer in tall buildings.

He needs information that he missed

He thinks the local slide may have a similar cause.

He would like to visit the Leaning Tower of Pisa.

18. According to the professor, where are mudslides most common?

On slopes of 27 to 45 degrees

30 feet beneath the earth's surface

In the San Joaquin Valley of California

In places where frozen ground melts

19. What will the man probably include in his research? Click on TWO answers.

A study of the area's geology

A visit to a leaning tower

A search for other mudslides in the area

an article about groundwater removal

Script:

Listen to part of a talk in a music education class.

Learning to play a musical instrument is one of the best experiences that a young child can have. Learning to play music begins with listening to others play music. A child’s first experience with playing an instrument should be by ear without the distraction of printed music. Playing by car is the natural beginning for children. The ability to play by ear will help them throughout their lives, and it also enriches the experience of music making. But children should eventually learn to read music. So, when is the right time? And what′s the best way for a child to learn how to read music?

A lot of children start playing an instrument at the age of eight or nine. It′s best for them to spend a couple of years playing by ear before the teacher introduces notation -printed music. Children should first be able to feel that their instrument is a part of them. Playing by ear is the best way for children to become comfortable with their instrument.

The teacher should introduce notation only when the child is ready. The right time is when the child feels a need for notation. This might be when the child has learned so many pieces it’s sort of difficult to remember them all. Then the teacher can present the printed music as a memory aid so learning to read music has a practical purpose and isn’t just a meaningless task.

A good time to teach notation is when a group of children play together. The printed score is a way to help them sort of keep track of who plays what and when. The score will organize their cooperative effort in a way that makes sense to them.

Another good time is when the child wants to play music that’s so complex it would be difficult to learn by ear. In this case, learning to read music is a natural step toward playing the music the child wants to play. The teacher should play the score for the child the first time through, and demonstrate how the notes on the page are transformed into music. The child listens as he or she looks at the printed notes. This way the child can begin to see how the notes represent sound and a printed score becomes a piece of music. As the child listens—and maybe plays along—he or she begins to understand the shape of the new piece.

For students who play a chord-producing instrument- the guitar, for example—a natural first step toward reading music is playing by chord symbols. Chord symbols are found in a lot of different styles of music -like pop and jazz and at various levels of difficulty. Chord symbols are a simple form of written music—they’re kind of a halfway point between playing by ear and reading a standard musical score.

After children can play by ear and then by chord symbols the next step is to read standard music notation. Although that’s the natural order for children to learn, it doesn’t mean that each successive step is better than the one that came before. The three methods of playing music playing by ear playing chords, and playing by standard notation—are all valuable in their own way. Some children will always prefer to play by ear. Others will like chord playing and have no desire to learn another method. And still others will find their musical home in the tradition of note reading. It′s the job of the music teacher to fit the method to the needs of the students.

20. What is playing by ear?

Listening to music through ear phones

Paying attention to what the teacher says

Playing an instrument that is held up to the ear

Learning to play music without reading notation

21. Listen again to part of the talk. Then answer the question. Why does the professor ask this?

To introduce the main point he wants to make

To find out if everyone in class can read music

To suggest that all children should study music

To review material for an examination

22. According to the professor, when should children learn to read musical notation? Click on TWO answers.

When they are ready to play in front of an audience

When a group of children play music together

When they first learn how to play an instrument

When the music is too complex to learn by ear

23. According to the professor, why should a music teacher play the score for a child the first time?

To demonstrate how the printed notes translate into music

To suggest that the score can be played in different styles

To allow the child to memorize the score by listening

To show the child that the teacher is an excellent player

24. According to the professor, what is the natural order for children to learn music?

(i) Learn how to play by chord symbols. (ii) Learn how to play the instrument by ear. (iii) Learn how to read standard notation.

(i) Learn how to play the instrument by ear. (ii) Learn how to play by chord symbols. (iii) Learn how to read standard notation.

(i) Learn how to read standard notation. (ii) Learn how to play the instrument by ear. (iii) Learn how to play by chord symbols.

25. What does the professor imply about the three methods of playing music?

Each method is appropriate for some students.

There is no reason to learn all three methods.

Students should use the teacher's favorite method.

The best method is playing by standard notation.

Script:

Listen to part of a lecture in a physics class. The professor is discussing energy and work.

In physics, energy is defined as the ability to do work. And in physics, work doesn′t refer to what you do at your job. In physics, work means moving an object when there is some resistance to its movement. Every time we lift an object, push it, pull it, or carry it, we are doing work.

Two things are necessary for work to occur. First, force—or energy must be applied to the object. If no energy is used no work has been done. Second the object must be moved a distance. If the object is pushed or pulled but it doesn′t move, no work has been done.

When we move an object, there’s always some resistance, or opposition to movement. Resistance is a force that tends to oppose or slow down movement. Whenever an object meets resistance, more energy is needed to do the work. A good example is what happens when a farmer′s plow moves through the soil. The plow encounters resistance if it gets too deep into the soil, or if rocks and roots in the soil make the soil hard to turn. When this happens, the tractor’s engine has to work harder. The engine strains under the load and uses more fuel.

Each time we do work, we use energy. If our muscles do the work, energy in the form of food is required. If a machine does the work, energy in the form of oil, gas. coal, electricity, or some other source is required. Without energy, no work can be done.

Energy comes in several different forms. It can take the form of heat, light, motion, electricity, chemical energy, nuclear energy, and so on. Energy can change forms, but it cannot be created or destroyed. Energy is always conserved -that is a law of nature. This law is known as the law of conservation of energy, or the First law of thermodynamics. The law states that energy can be converted from any form to any other form, but no matter what form it takes, it’s still energy, and none of the energy disappears when it changes form.

Machines do work by converting one form of energy to another. For example, a car converts the chemical energy in gasoline to kinetic energy to motion. A stove converts electrical energy or chemical energy into heat energy that cooks our food. The law of conservation of energy tells us that a machine needs to have a source of energy. And a machine can′t supply more power than it gets from its energy source. When the fuel runs out. the machine stops. The same rule applies to living organisms: if the organism doesn’t have food, it dies.

The law of conservation of energy tells us that the energy of any system- whether the system is a machine, a living organism, or an ecosystem—that the energy must balance out in the end. The amount of energy in the system is conserved, even though the energy changes forms.

The earth as a whole is a complex system that receives almost all its energy from the sun in the form of light. Some of the solar energy converts to heat, which warms the earth. Some of it evaporates water, forms clouds, and produces rain. Some energy is captured by plants, and is turned into chemical energy during photosynthesis. The first law of thermodynamics— conservation of energy—says the earth must end up with the same amount of energy it started out with. The energy changes forms, but no energy is lost or gained.

26. How does the field of physics define “work”?

Work is the change in speed of a falling object.

Work is the ability to move an object.

Work is the research done by physicists in a laboratory.

Work is the amount of energy in the solar system.

27. Listen again to part of the lecture. Then answer the question. Why does the professor talk about a plow?

To give reasons for the failure of agriculture in some areas

To show that a plow is the least efficient piece of farm equipment

To describe recent improvements in agricultural technology

To explain what happens when a moving object meets resistance

28. Based on the information in the lecture, choose the statements that reflects the first law of thermodynamics.

Nuclear energy is regulated by international law.

The amount of energy in any system stays the same.

Electricity can be converted to heat or light.

29. Which TWO sentences illustrate the conversion of energy from one form to another? Click on TWO answers.

A light bulb bums out after being on for one hundred hours.

A tractor engine stops when the fuel tank is empty.

A car changes the chemical energy in gasoline to motion.

An electric stove converts electricity to heat energy.

30. Listen again to part of the lecture. Then answer the question. Why does the professor say this?

To show that both machines and living things need energy

To support the idea of giving food aid to needy people

To recommend the development of new energy sources

To explain why organisms must create their own energy

31. What can be inferred about the energy in the earth as a whole system?

If there is no sunlight, the earth makes its own energy.

Plants contribute more energy than animals contribute.

No new' energy is created, and no energy is destroyed.

The system gradually gains energy in the form of heat.

Script:

Listen to a discussion by a group of students in an oceanography class.

Instructor: OK, in this course, we′ve discussed a number of the ocean’s unusual features. Today we’re going to discuss atolls and how they′re formed. First, can you tell me what an atoll is? Beth?

Beth: An atoll’s a ring-shaped mass of coral and algae.

Instructor: That’s right. An atoll’s made of coral and algae, and it’s in the shape of a ring. . . . And where’re atolls found? Jim?

Jim: Atolls′re found in tropical and subtropical areas of the ocean.

Instructor: It’s true that atolls’re found in tropical and subtropical areas. . . . Why is that, do you think?

Jim: It’s where the water temperature’s fairly warm. The coral and reef-building algae grow best in fairly warm water.

Instructor: OK, now, let’s look at how atolls’re formed. We’ll look at a series of three diagrams and discuss what′s happening in each. This diagram shows the first step in the process. What does the diagram show? Linda?

Linda: Well, it . . . uh . . . looks like a volcano.

Instructor: (dryly) It certainly does . . . but perhaps there’s something more you could add.

Linda: Uh, it’s a volcanic island ... a newer volcanic island that has formed recently.

Instructor: And what’s growing around the volcanic island?

Linda: Ah ... a coral reefs growing around this new volcanic island.

Instructor: Yes, good. ... OK, now let’s look at the second diagram. Beth, can you describe what’s happening in this diagram?

Beth: The second diagram shows that the volcanic island has started to erode – it’s wearing down.

Instructor: And what’s been happening with the coral reef while the volcanic island has been eroding?

Beth: The coral reef has continued to grow.

Instructor: Excellent. Now let’s look at the third diagram in the series. What’s happening in this diagram? Jim?

Jim: Well, in this diagram, you can see that the volcanic island has, um, worn down so far that it’s below the level of the ocean. The coral has built up even further, so the coral′s above the water, and the remains of the volcano are under water.

Instructor: Yes, and it’s at this stage when the ring of coral’s called an atoll. The volcano has sunk, and there’s a pool of water inside the atoll. Now, what do we call the pool of water that remains inside an atoll? Linda?

Linda: The pool of water inside the atoll is called a lagoon.

Instructor: That’s correct. The body of water inside an atoll is called a lagoon.

Well, you seem to understand quite clearly how atolls result when coral reefs around volcanic islands continue to grow as the volcanic island themselves diminish. That’s all for today. I′ll see you next class.

32. What is this discussion mainly about?

The formation of lagoons

The formation of certain coralline structures

Where atolls most likely occur

How oceanic volcanoes occur

33. What is an atoll made of?

Only of coral

A combination of coral and algae

Only of algae

A combination of algae and volcanic ash

34. Where do atolls tend to grow?

In tropical areas

In arctic areas

In warm water

In cool water

35. Listen again to part of the discussion. Then answer the question. Why does the instructor say this?

She would like a more thorough response from the student.

She does not understand the student's response.

The student's response was incorrect.

The diagram they are looking at is not clear enough.

36. Which occurs in the first step?

A volcanic island forms.

The volcano disappears underwater.

The volcano erodes.

Coral begins to grow.

37. Which occurs in the second step?

The volcano erodes.

Coral begins to grow.

A volcanic island forms.

The volcano disappears underwater.

38. Which occurs in the third step?

The volcano disappears underwater.

The volcano erodes.

A volcanic island forms.

Coral begins to grow.

39. Which occurs in the fourth step?

The volcano erodes.

The volcano disappears underwater.

Coral begins to grow.

A volcanic island forms.

40. What is true about a lagoon?

It is surrounded by an atoll.

It is made of coral.

It encircles an atoll.

It is a body of water.

II.

GREEN ICEBERGS

Icebergs are massive blocks of ice, irregular in shape; they float with only about 12 percent of their mass above the sea surface. They are formed by glaciers—large rivers of ice that begin inland in the snows of Greenland, Antarctica, and Alaska—and move slowly toward the sea. The forward movement, the melting at the base of the glacier where it meets the ocean, and waves and tidal action cause blocks of ice to break off and float out to sea.

Icebergs are ordinarily blue to white, although they sometimes appear dark or opaque because they carry gravel and bits of rock. They may change color with changing light conditions and cloud cover, glowing pink or gold in the morning or evening light, but this color change is generally related to the low angle of the Sun above the horizon. However, travelers to Antarctica have repeatedly reported seeing green icebergs in the Weddell Sea and, more commonly, close to the Amery Ice Shelf in East Antarctica.

One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion when blue ice is illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun, but green icebergs stand out among white and blue icebergs under a great variety of light conditions. Another suggestion is that the color might be related to ice with high levels of metallic compounds, including copper and iron. Recent expeditions have taken ice samples from green icebergs and ice cores—vertical, cylindrical ice samples reaching down to great depths—from the glacial ice shelves along the Antarctic continent. Analyses of these cores and samples provide a different solution to the problem.

The ice shelf cores, with a total length of 215 meters (705 feet), were long enough to penetrate through glacial ice—which is formed from the compaction of snow and contains air bubbles—and to continue into the clear, bubble-free ice formed from seawater that freezes onto the bottom of the glacial ice. The properties of this clear sea ice were very similar to the ice from the green iceberg. The scientists concluded that green icebergs form when a two-layer block of shelf ice breaks away and capsizes (turns upside down), exposing the bubble-free shelf ice that was formed from seawater.

A green iceberg that stranded just west of the Amery Ice Shelf showed two distinct layers: bubbly blue-white ice and bubble-free green ice separated by a one- meter-long ice layer containing sediments. The green ice portion was textured by seawater erosion. Where cracks were present, the color was light green because of light scattering; where no cracks were present, the color was dark green. No air bubbles were present in the green ice, suggesting that the ice was not formed from the compression of snow but instead from the freezing of seawater. Large concentrations of single-celled organisms with green pigments (coloring substances) occur along the edges of the ice shelves in this region, and the seawater is rich in their decomposing organic material. The green iceberg did not contain large amounts of particles from these organisms, but the ice had accumulated dissolved organic matter from the seawater. It appears that unlike salt, dissolved organic substances are not excluded from the ice in the freezing process. Analysis shows that the dissolved organic material absorbs enough blue wavelengths from solar light to make the ice appear green.

Chemical evidence shows that platelets (minute flat portions) of ice form in the water and then accrete and stick to the bottom of the ice shelf to form a slush (partially melted snow). The slush is compacted by an unknown mechanism, and solid, bubblefree ice is formed from water high in soluble organic substances. When an iceberg separates from the ice shelf and capsizes, the green ice is exposed.

The Amery Ice Shelf appears to be uniquely suited to the production of green ice-bergs. Once detached from the ice shelf, these bergs drift in the currents and wind systems surrounding Antarctica and can be found scattered among Antarctica's less colorful icebergs.

41. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of icebergs EXCEPT ................

They are formed where glaciers meet the ocean.

Most of their mass is above the sea surface.

Waves and tides cause them to break off glaciers.

They do not have a regular shape.

Explain:

42. According to paragraph 2, what causes icebergs to sometimes appear dark or opaque? ................

The presence of large cracks in their surface

The presence of gravel or bits of rock

A heavy cloud cover

The low angle of the Sun above the horizon

Explain:

43. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

One explanation for the color of green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion that occurs when the light from a near-horizon red Sun shines on a blue iceberg.

One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to a great variety of light conditions, but green icebergs stand out best among other icebergs when illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun.

One explanation notes that green icebergs stand out among other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions, but this is attributed to an optical illusion.

One explanation attributes the color of green icebergs to an optical illusion under special light conditions, but green icebergs appear distinct from other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions.

Explain:

44. The word “penetrate” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

collect

endure

melt

pierce

Explain:

45. According to paragraph 4, how is glacial ice formed?

By the freezing of seawater on the bottom of ice shelves

By the capsizing of a two-layer block of shelf ice

By the compaction of snow

By breaking away from the ice shelf

Explain:

46. According to paragraph 4, ice shelf cores helped scientists explain the formation of green icebergs by showing that ................

the ice at the bottom of green icebergs is bubble-free ice formed from frozen seawater

glacial ice is lighter and floats better than sea ice

bubble-free ice is found at the top of the ice shelf

the clear sea ice at the bottom of the ice shelf is similar to ice from a green iceberg

Explain:

47. Why does the author mention that "The green ice portion was textured by seawater erosion"?

To suggest that green ice is more easily eroded by seawater than white ice is

To support the idea that the green ice had been the bottom layer before capsizing

To explain how the air bubbles had been removed from the green ice

To explain why cracks in the iceberg appeared light green instead of dark green

Explain:

48. The word “accumulated” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

released

frozen

covered

collected

Explain:

49. The word “excluded” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

gathered together

compressed

damaged

kept out

Explain:

50. The word “accrete” in the passage is closest in meaning to

transfer

come together

advance

flatten out

Explain:

51. Which of the following is NOT explained in the passage?

Why green icebergs contain large amounts of dissolved organic pigments

Why green icebergs are commonly produced in some parts of Antarctica

Why blocks of shelf ice sometimes capsize after breaking off

Why blocks of ice break off where glaciers meet the ocean

Explain:

52. The passage supports which of the following statements about the Amery Ice Shelf?

The Amery Ice Shelf produces only green icebergs.

No green icebergs are found far from the Amery Ice Shelf.

The Amery Ice Shelf produces green icebergs because its ice contains high levels of metallic compounds such as copper and iron.

The Amery Ice Shelf produces green icebergs because the seawater is rich in a particular kind of soluble organic material.

Explain:

53. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) that indicate where the sentence “Scientists have differed as to whether icebergs appear green as a result of light conditions or because of something in the ice itself.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Number 2

Number 4

Number 3

Number 1

Explain:

54. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is “Several suggestions, ranging from light conditions to the presence of metallic compounds, have been offered to explain why some icebergs appear green.”. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

Ice cores and samples revealed that both ice shelves and green icebergs contain a layer of bubbly glacial ice and a layer of bubble-free sea ice.

Green icebergs are white until they come into contact with seawater containing platelets and soluble organic green pigments.

Green icebergs form when a two- layer block of ice breaks away from a glacier and capsizes, exposing the bottom sea ice to view.

Ice cores were used to determine that green icebergs were formed from the compaction of metallic compounds, including copper and iron.

All ice shelves can produce green icebergs, but the Amery Ice Shelf is especially well suited to do so.

In a green iceberg, the sea ice contains large concentrations of organic matter from the seawater.

Explain:

LOIE FULLER

The United States dancer Loie Fuller (1862-1928) found theatrical dance in the late nineteenth century artistically unfulfilling. She considered herself an artist rather than a mere entertainer, and she, in turn, attracted the notice of other artists.

Fuller devised a type of dance that focused on the shifting play of lights and colors on the voluminous skirts or draperies she wore, which she kept in constant motion principally through movements of her arms, sometimes extended with wands concealed under her costumes. She rejected the technical virtuosity of movement in ballet, the most prestigious form of theatrical dance at that time, perhaps because her formal dance training was minimal. Although her early theatrical career had included stints as an actress, she was not primarily interested in storytelling or expressing emotions through dance; the drama of her dancing emanated from her visual effects.

Although she discovered and introduced her art in the United States, she achieved her greatest glory in Paris, where she was engaged by the Folies Bergère in 1892 and soon became "La Loie," the darling of Parisian audiences. Many of her dances represented elements or natural objects—Fire, the Lily, the Butterfly, and so on—and thus accorded well with the fashionable Art Nouveau style, which emphasized nature imagery and fluid, sinuous lines. Her dancing also attracted the attention of French poets and painters of the period, for it appealed to their liking for mystery, their belief in art for art's sake, a nineteenth-century idea that art is valuable in itself rather than because it may have some moral or educational benefit, and their efforts to synthesize form and content.

Fuller had scientific leanings and constantly experimented with electrical lighting (which was then in its infancy), colored gels, slide projections, and other aspects of stage technology. She invented and patented special arrangements of mirrors and concocted chemical dyes for her draperies. Her interest in color and light paralleled the research of several artists of the period, notably the painter Seurat, famed for his Pointillist technique of creating a sense of shapes and light on canvas by applying extremely small dots of color rather than by painting lines. One of Fuller's major inventions was underlighting, in which she stood on a pane of frosted glass illuminated from underneath. This was particularly effective in her Fire Dance (1895), performed to the music of Richard Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyries." The dance caught the eye of artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, who depicted it in a lithograph.

As her technological expertise grew more sophisticated, so did the other aspects of her dances. (1) Although she gave little thought to music in her earliest dances, she later used scores by Gluck, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Wagner, eventually graduating to Stravinsky, Fauré, Debussy, and Mussorgsky, composers who were then considered progressive. (2) She began to address more ambitious themes in her dances such as The Sea, in which her dancers invisibly agitated a huge expanse of silk, played upon by colored lights. (3) Always open to scientific and technological innovations, she befriended the scientists Marie and Pierre Curie upon their discovery of radium and created a Radium Dance, which simulated the phosphorescence of that element. (4) She both appeared in films—then in an early stage of development—and made them herself; the hero of her fairy-tale film Le Lys de la Vie (1919) was played by René Clair, later a leading French film director.

At the Paris Exposition in 1900, she had her own theater, where, in addition to her own dances, she presented pantomimes by the Japanese actress Sada Yocco. She as-sembled an all-female company at this time and established a school around 1908, but neither survived her. Although she is remembered today chiefly for her innovations in stage lighting, her activities also touched Isadora Duncan and Ruth St. Denis, two other United States dancers who were experimenting with new types of dance. She sponsored Duncan's first appearance in Europe. Her theater at the Paris Exposition was visited by St. Denis, who found new ideas about stagecraft in Fuller's work and fresh sources for her art in Sada Yocco's plays. In 1924 St. Denis paid tribute to Fuller with the duet Valse a la Loie.

55. What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about theatrical dance in the late nineteenth century?

It was more a form of entertainment than a form of serious art.

It was a relatively new art form in the United States.

It influenced many artists outside of the field of dance.

It was very similar to theatrical dance of the early nineteenth century.

Explain:

56. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are characteristic of Fuller′s type of dance EXCEPT ................

continuous movement of her costumes

large and full costumes

experimentation using color

technical virtuosity of movement

Explain:

57. The word “prestigious” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

demanding

highly regarded

financially rewarding

serious

Explain:

58. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Fuller believed that the drama of her dancing sprang from her emotional style of storytelling.

Fuller used visual effects to dramatize the stories and emotions expressed in her work.

Fuller's focus on the visual effects of dance resulted from her early theatrical training as an actress.

Fuller was more interested in dance's visual impact than in its narrative or emotional possibilities.

Explain:

59. The word “engaged” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

attracted

praised

hired

noticed

Explain:

60. The word “synthesize” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

simplify

improve

integrate

define

Explain:

61. According to paragraph 3, why was Fuller′s work well received in Paris?

Fuller's dances were in harmony with the artistic values already present in Paris.

Influential poets tried to interest dancers in Fuller's work when she arrived in Paris.

Parisian audiences were particularly interested in artists and artistic movements from the United States.

Fuller's work at this time borrowed directly from French artists working in other media.

Explain:

62. According to paragraph 4, Fuller′s Fire Dance was notable in part for its ................

draperies with small dots resembling the Pointillist technique of Seurat

use of colored gels to illuminate glass

technique of lighting the dancer from beneath

use of dyes and paints to create an image of fire

Explain:

63. Why does the author mention Fuller′s The Sea?

To illustrate how Fuller's interest in science was reflected in her work

To illustrate a particular way in which Fuller developed as an artist

To explain why Fuller sometimes used music by progressive composers

To point out a dance of Fuller's in which music did not play an important role

Explain:

64. The word “agitated” in the passage is closest in meaning to ................

created movement in

pretended to be

emerged from beneath

arranged themselves in

Explain:

65. According to paragraph 6, what was true of Fuller′s theater at the Paris Exposition?

It became a famous school that is still named in honor of Fuller.

It featured performances by prominent male as well as female dancers.

It presented some works that were not by Fuller.

It continued to operate as a theater after Fuller died.

Explain:

66. The passage mentions which of the following as a dance of Fuller′s that was set to music?

Valse a la Loie

Radium Dance

Le Lys de la Vie

Fire Dance

Explain:

67. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) that indicate where the sentence “For all her originality in dance, her interests expanded beyond it into newly emerging artistic media.” could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Number 4

Number 2

Number 3

Number 1

Explain:

68. An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is “Loie Fuller was an important and innovative dancer.”. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

Fuller transformed dance in part by creating dance interpretations of works by poets and painters.

Fuller introduced many technical innovations to the staging of theatrical dance.

Fuller believed that audiences in the late nineteenth century had lost interest in most theatrical dance.

Fuller continued to develop throughout her career, creating more complex works and exploring new artistic media.

Fuller's work influenced a number of other dancers who were interested in experimental dance.

By the 1920's, Fuller's theater at the Paris Exhibition had become the world center for innovative dance.

Explain:

PULSARS

There is still much for astronomers to learn about pulsars. Based on what is known, the term pulsar is used to describe the phenomenon of short, precisely timed radio bursts that are emitted from somewhere in space. Though all is not known about pulsars, they are now believed in reality to emanate from spinning neutron stars, highly reduced cores of collapsed stars that are theorized to exist.

Pulsars were discovered in 1967, when Jocelyn Bell, a graduate student at Cambridge University, noticed an unusual pattern on a chart from a radio telescope. What made this pattern unusual was that, unlike other radio signals from celestial objects, this series of pulses had a highly regular period of 1.33730119 seconds. Because day after day the pulses came from the same place among the stars, Cambridge researchers came to the conclusion that they could not have come from a local source such as an Earth satellite.

(1) A name was needed for this newly discovered phenomenon. (2) The possibility that the signals were coming from a distant civilization was considered, and at that point the idea of naming the phenomenon L.G.M. (short for Little Green Men) was raised. (3) However, after researchers had found three more regularly pulsing objects in other parts of the sky over the next few weeks, the name pulsar was selected instead of L.G.M. (4)

As more and more pulsars were found, astronomers engaged in debates over their nature. It was determined that a pulsar could not be a star inasmuch as a normal star is too big to pulse so fast. The question was also raised as to whether a pulsar might be a white dwarf star, a dying star that has collapsed to approximately the size of the Earth and is slowly cooling off. However, this idea was also rejected because the fastest pulsar known at the time pulsed around thirty times per second and a white dwarf, which is the smallest known type of star, would not hold together if it were to spin that fast.

The final conclusion among astronomers was that only a neutron star, which is theorized to be the remaining core of a collapsed star that has been reduced to a highly dense radius of only around 10 kilometers, was small enough to be a pulsar. Further evidence of the link between pulsars and neutron stars was found in 1968, when a pulsar was found in the middle of the Crab Nebula. The Crab Nebula is what remains of the supernova of the year 1054, and inasmuch as it has been theorized that neutron stars sometimes remain following supernova explosions, it is believed that the pulsar coming from the Crab Nebula is evidently just such a neutron star.

(5) The generally accepted theory for pulsars is the lighthouse theory, which is based upon a consideration of the theoretical properties of neutron stars and the observed properties of pulsars. (6) According to the lighthouse theory, a spinning neutron star emits beams of radiation that sweep through the sky, and when one of the beams passes over the Earth, it is detectable on Earth. (7) It is known as the lighthouse theory because the emissions from neutron stars are similar to the pulses of light emitted from lighthouses as they sweep over the ocean; the name lighthouse is therefore actually more appropriate than the name pulsar. (8)

69. The phrase “emanate from” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................

revolve around

develop from

wander away from

receive directions from

Explain:

70. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 2? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ................

It was unusual for celestial objects to emit radio signals.

It was unusual for researchers to hear patterns from space.

It was unusual that the pattern of the pulsars was so regular.

It was unusual that the period of pulses was only slightly more than a second in length.

Explain:

71. The word “they” in paragraph 2 refers to ................

Cambridge researchers

day after day

the pulses

the stars

Explain:

72. The word “raised” in paragraph 3 could best be replaced by ................

lifted

suggested

elevated

discovered

Explain:

73. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “This name was selected because it indicates a regularly pulsing radio source.” can be added to paragraph 3. Where would the sentence best fit? ................

Number 3

Number 4

Number 1

Number 2

Explain:

74. The phrase “engaged in” in paragraph 4 could best be replaced by ................

took part in

were disappointed in

made promises about

became attached to

Explain:

75. The word “their” in paragraph 4 refers to ................

pulsars

astronomers

weeks

details

Explain:

76. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ................

Pulsars could not be white dwarfs because the frequency of the pulsars is too high.

Pulsars cannot spin very fast because they will fall apart if they spin fast.

White dwarfs cannot contain pulsars because white dwarfs spin much faster than pulsars.

White dwarfs cannot be dying stars because they cannot pulse at around thirty times per second.

Explain:

77. The word “Further” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................

additional

irrelevant

distant

unreliable

Explain:

78. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 5? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ................

It is believed that the supernova of1054 created the Crab Nebula, which contains a pulsing neutron star.

It is believed that a neutron star exploded in the supernova of 1054, creating the Crab Nebula.

It is believed that a pulsar created the Crab Nebula, which exploded in a supernova in 1054.

It is believed that the Crab Nebula is a pulsar that is on the verge of becoming a supernova.

Explain:

79. The word “properties” in paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to ................

lands

masses

characteristics

surroundings

Explain:

80. The word “it” in paragraph 6 refers to ................

one of the beams

the sky

the Earth

a spinning neutron star

Explain:

81. Look at the four numbers (5), (6), (7) and (8) which indicate where the sentence “The periodic flashing of pulsars is related to rotation rather than pulsing, so the name pulsar is actually not very accurate.” can be added to paragraph 6. Where would the sentence best fit? ................

Number 6

Number 5

Number 8

Number 7

Explain:

DECISIONS

In a theoretical model of decision making, a decision is defined as the process of selecting one option from among a group of options for implementation. (1) Decisions are formed by a decision maker, the one who actually chooses the final option, in conjunction with a decision unit, all of those in the organization around the decision maker who take part in the process. (2) In this theoretical model, the members of the decision unit react to an unidentified problem by studying the problem, determining the objectives of the organization, formulating options, evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of each of the options, and reaching a conclusion. (3) Many different factors can have an effect on the decision, including the nature of the problem itself, external forces exerting an influence on the organization, the internal dynamics of the decision unit, and the personality of the decision maker. (4)

During recent years, decision making has been studied systematically by drawing from such diverse areas of study as psychology, sociology, business, government, history, mathematics, and statistics. Analyses of decisions often emphasize one of three principal conceptual perspectives (though often the approach that is actually employed is somewhat eclectic).

In the oldest of the three approaches, decisions are made by a rational actor, who makes a particular decision directly and purposefully in response to a specific threat from the external environment. It is assumed that this rational actor has clear objectives in mind, develops numerous reasonable options, considers the advantages and disadvantages of each option carefully, chooses the best option after careful analysis, and then proceeds to implement it fully. A variation of the rational actor model is a decision maker who is a satisfier, one who selects the first satisfactory option rather than continuing the decision-making process until the optimal decision has been reached.

A second perspective places an emphasis on the impact of routines on decisions within organizations. It demonstrates how organizational structures and routines such as standard operating procedures tend to limit the decision-making process in a variety of ways, perhaps by restricting the information available to the decision unit, by restricting the breadth of options among which the decision unit may choose, or by inhibiting the ability of the organization to implement the decision quickly and effectively once it has been taken. Pre-planned routines and standard operating procedures are essential to coordinate the efforts of large numbers of people in massive organizations. However, these same routines and procedures can also have an inhibiting effect on the ability of the organization to arrive at optimal decisions and implement them efficiently. In this sort of decision-making process, organizations tend to take not the optimal decision but the decision that best fits within the permitted operating parameters outlined by the organization.

A third conceptual perspective emphasizes the internal dynamics of the decision unit and the extent to which decisions are based on political forces within the organization. This perspective demonstrates how bargaining among individuals who have different interests and motives and varying levels of power in the decision unit leads to eventual compromise that is not the preferred choice of any of the members of the decision unit.

Each of these three perspectives on the decision-making process demonstrates a different point of view on decision making, a different lens through which the decision-making process can be observed. It is safe to say that decision making in most organizations shows marked influences from each perspective; i.e., an organization strives to get as close as possible to the rational model in its decisions, yet the internal routines and dynamics of the organization come into play in the decision.

82. It can be inferred from the information in paragraph 1 that the theoretical decision-making process ................

involves only the decision maker

does not work in real situations

requires the contemplation of numerous options

is made without the decision unit

Explain:

83. The phrase “in conjunction with” in paragraph 1 could best be replaced by ................

tied to

apart from

along with

connected to

Explain:

84. All of the following are listed in paragraph 1 as having an effect on decisions EXCEPT ................

evaluation of the problem

open-ended discussions

focus on objectives

generation of options

Explain:

85. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “Additionally, when a decision must be made in a crisis situation, both stress and the speed at which events are progressing can have an effect, often a negative one, on the decision process.” can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? ................

Number 3

Number 4

Number 1

Number 2

Explain:

86. The word “eclectic” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................

bizarre

personal

mixed

organized

Explain:

87. It can be inferred from paragraph 3 that a “rational actor” would be least likely to ................

work in a random fashion

deal with a specific threat

consider disadvantages of options

ponder various options

Explain:

88. The word “it” in paragraph 3 refers to ................

careful analysis

each option

variation

the best option

Explain:

89. Why does the author mention “a satisfier, one who selects the first satisfactory option rather than continuing the decision-making process until the optimal decision has been reached” in paragraph 3? ................

A satisfier shares some characteristics with a rational actor.

A satisfier exhibits more common behavior than a rational actor.

A satisfier is the predecessor of a rational actor.

A satisfier shows contrasting behavior to a rational actor.

Explain:

90. The word “places” in paragraph 4 could best be replaced by ................

sets

finds

locates

puts

Explain:

91. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 4? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ................

Organizations need to set up strict procedures to maximize the effectiveness of decisions.

Procedures are needed to ensure that decisions are implemented quickly and effectively.

The restriction of information limits the number of options in a decision.

Set routines within organizations tend to constrain decisions.

Explain:

92. The word “dynamics” in paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to ................

philosophies

explosions

emotions

interactions

Explain:

93. According to paragraph 5, what is the end result of political bargaining within an organization? ................

Differing interests and motives are changed.

No decision is ever reached.

The members of the decision unit leave the unit.

No one is completely satisfied with the final outcome.

Explain:

94. An introductory sentence or a brief summary of the passage is: “Different models for analyzing the process of decision making.” Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. ................

One model looks at how rational actors are able to work within organizational structures and routines to achieve optimal solutions.

One model looks at how satisfied all participants are after a given decision has been made.

One model looks at how much a decision-making process has been manipulated and limited by factions within the organization.

One model looks at how organizational structure and procedures influence a decision and how much a decision has been limited by these procedures.

One model looks at how well a decision maker has analyzed a problem and possible solutions to achieve the optimal solution.

One model looks at how the decision-making process differs in diverse areas such as psychology, sociology, business, government, history, mathematics, and statistics.

Explain:

EARLY AUTOS

America’s passion for the automobile developed rather quickly in the beginning of the twentieth century. At the turn of that century, there were few automobiles, or horseless carriages, as they were called at the time, and those that existed were considered frivolous playthings of the rich. They were rather fragile machines that sputtered and smoked and broke down often; they were expensive toys that could not be counted on to get one where one needed to go; they could only be afforded by the wealthy class, who could afford both the expensive upkeep and the inherent delays that resulted from the use of a machine that tended to break down time and again. These early automobiles required repairs so frequently both because their engineering was at an immature stage and because roads were unpaved and often in poor condition. Then, when breakdowns occurred, there were no services such as roadside gas stations or tow trucks to assist drivers needing help in their predicament. Drivers of horse-drawn carriages considered the horseless mode of transportation foolhardy, preferring instead to rely on their four-legged “engines,” which they considered a tremendously more dependable and cost-effective means of getting around.

Automobiles in the beginning of the twentieth century were quite unlike today’s models. Many of them were electric cars, even though the electric models had quite a limited range and needed to be recharged frequently at electric charging stations; many others were powered by steam, though it was often required that drivers of steam cars be certified steam engineers due to the dangers inherent in operating a steam-powered machine. The early automobiles also lacked much emphasis on body design; in fact, they were often little more than benches on wheels, though by the end of the first decade of the century they had progressed to leather-upholstered chairs or sofas on thin wheels that absorbed little of the incessant pounding associated with the movement of these machines.

In spite of the rather rough and undeveloped nature of these early horseless carriages, something about them grabbed people’s imagination, and their use increased rapidly, though not always smoothly. In the first decade of the last century, roads were shared by the horse-drawn and horseless variety of carriages, a situation that was rife with problems and required strict measures to control the incidents and accidents that resulted when two such different modes of transportation were used in close proximity. New York City, for example, banned horseless vehicles from Central Park early in the century because they had been involved in so many accidents, often causing injury or death; then, in 1904, New York state felt that it was necessary to control automobile traffic by placing speed limits of 20 miles per hour in open areas, 15 miles per hour in villages, and 10 miles per hour in cities or areas of congestion. However, the measures taken were less a means of limiting use of the automobile and more a way of controlling the effects of an invention whose use increased dramatically in a relatively short period of time. Under 5,000 automobiles were sold in the United States for a total cost of approximately $5 million in 1900, while considerably more cars, 181,000, were sold for $215 million in 1910, and by the middle of the 1920s, automobile manufacturing had become the top industry in the United States and accounted for 6 percent of the manufacturing in the country.

95. Based on the information in paragraph 1, who would have been most likely to own a car in 1900? ................

A skilled laborer

A successful investor

A rural farmer

A scholarship student

Explain:

96. The word “frivolous” in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to ................

natural

trivial

delicate

essential

Explain:

97. It is indicated in paragraph 1 that it was necessary to repair early autos because of ................

the rough roads

the immature drivers

the lack of roads

the elaborate engines

Explain:

98. The author refers to “four-legged engines” in paragraph 1 in order to indicate that ................

horses were an effective mode of transportation

early autos had little more than an engine and wheels

it was foolish to travel on a four-legged animal

automobile engines were evaluated in terms of their horsepower

Explain:

99. Look at the four numbers (1), (2), (3) and (4) which indicate where the sentence “These horrendous road conditions forced drivers to use their automobiles on grooved, rutted, and bumpy roads.” can be added to paragraph 1. Where would the sentence best fit? ................

Number 3

Number 1

Number 2

Number 4

Explain:

100. The phrase “many others” in paragraph 2 refers to ................

electric models

today's models

electric charging stations

automobiles in the beginning of the twentieth century

Explain:

101. It is stated in paragraph 2 that the owners of steam-powered cars ................

often had to take their automobiles to charging stations

sometimes had to demonstrate knowledge of steam engineering

were often in danger because of the limited range of their automobiles

had to hire drivers to operate their cars

Explain:

102. Why does the author mention “benches on wheels” in paragraph 2? ................

To indicate that early automobiles had upholstered chairs or sofas

To show that car designs of the time were neither complex nor comfortable

To emphasize how the early automobiles were designed to absorb the pounding of the machine on the road

To show how remarkably automobile design had progressed

Explain:

103. The word “incessant” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to ................

jolting

continual

heavy

bothersome

Explain:

104. The phrase “rife with” in paragraph 3 could be replaced by ................

surrounded by

full of

occurring as a result of

dangerous due to

Explain:

105. It can be inferred from paragraph 3 that the government of New York state believed that ................

it was safer for cars to travel faster where there was less traffic and fewer people

horseless and horse-drawn vehicles should not travel on the same roads

strict speed limits should be placed on horse-drawn carriages

all horseless vehicles should be banned from all public parks

Explain:

106. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 3? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ................

It was necessary to take a measured approach in dealing with inventions such as the automobile.

The dramatic look of the automobile changed considerably over a short period of time.

It was important to lawmakers to discover the causes of the problems relating to automobiles.

The various laws were needed because the use of automobiles grew so fast.

Explain:

107. According to paragraph 3, it is NOT true that ................

automobile manufacturing was the top U.S. industry in 1920

sales of cars increased by more than 175,000 from 1900 to 1910

the total cost of the automobiles sold in the United States in 1900 was around $5 million

automobile manufacturing represented more than 5 percent of total U.S. manufacturing by 1925

Explain:

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Score: 0/10

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