Preface—What to Expect Students' exposure to many contemporary social, political and moral issues occurs principally, if not exclusively, by way of the electronic and print media. Students often learn of and about these issues through newspapers, radio, television and now the Internet. Even if we put aside such problems as media sensationalism, ratings wars, certain dubious journalistic practices and the need to present information in short grabs of time, the media's role in the presentation of contemporary issues still creates problems for students, particularly when they come to think about issues more critically, as they are required to do as part of their studies. Thinking about Issues Thinking more critically about an issue involves thinking about the problems or kinds of problems that the issue is thought to raise, hence its status as an issue. For example, organ donation is a contemporary issue of moral and social import. It has been made possible by advances in medical technology. It is enormously beneficial for those whose lives can be extended by it. But it is also thought to raise a number of problems or questions. Should organs be donated to individuals who are suffering from self-inflicted illnesses? Should individuals be able to sell their organs? Should animals be cultivated for their organs? These are considered problems because they challenge accepted practices, values and beliefs. We don't think people should conceive of themselves as means for another person's ends. We don't think that people should conceive of their bodies- themselves-as a collection of essentially expendable and replaceable parts. Second, thinking about an issue involves tracing the arguments that are and can be formulated in response to the problems that the issue is thought to raise. These arguments are often extremely complex, involving lots of interconnecting reasons, assumed principles and theories, as well as detailed information. Third, thinking critically about an issue involves evaluating these different arguments as either good or bad. This involves determining whether the conclusion is adequately supported by the premises-is the argument valid?-and whether the premises are true. Problems for Students The principal problem that students encounter has two aspects. Students often find that an individual in the media appears to be arguing a point when it turns out that the person is just reiterating the same claim in slightly different ways. Conversely, when an argument is being presented, students find it difficult to identify it as an argument; they find it difficult to distinguish the premises from the conclusion and to trace the interconnections between them. Thinking occurs in language but not all language expresses thought- language can be used to persuade, motivate or inspire a reaction, for example-so there is often a gap between an argument and how that argument is represented in language. We find this each time we read a newspaper article or listen to someone speak, for only rarely does the structure of what an individual writes or speaks imitate the structure of their argument. The premises and conclusion can appear in any order, which makes it | difficult for students to discern the structure of the argument. This is further complicated by the fact that not all premises of the argument are stated all the time. The premises that we do not state are the values, concepts and explanations that we take for granted as universally accepted or true. We assume that we all share the same values and so neglect to state that lying and killing are morally wrong. For example; in discussing gambling or retirement we assume that everyone knows what gambling is and what retirement is, and so neglect to define the sorts of activities that they are; it is possible to favour one view of punishment over another on the basis of an assumption about how criminality is caused. How the Book Helps Being able to identify an argument in a newspaper article, or what an individual says, is an extremely important skill for students to learn. The primary aim of What's at Issue Now? is to help students to recognise arguments about moral, political and social issues. This involves students being able to distinguish a conclusion from the reasons given in support of that conclusion. It involves them understanding the different sorts of reasons and how they operate in the overall argument. Some refer to expert opinion whereas others refer to statistical averages; some refer to moral principles or codes of conduct whereas others refer to human nature; some refer to analogous situations, and so the list goes on. It also involves students identifying the reasons that are assumed and therefore not stated. What's at Issue Now? teaches these skills in three ways. First, the contributors provide simple and succinct summaries of the arguments connected to a particular issue. Familiarisation with these arguments enables students to recognise them as they appear in the electronic and print media. Second, the contributors critically discuss and evaluate the structure of these arguments. They define the terms of the debate, they identify assumptions and fallacious reasoning and so on. Third, they demonstrate the crucial role that our theories and principles play in our reflections on, and discussions of, moral, political and social issues. Students are able to see that although an argument might not be at fault the theory or principle that informs it may be. Once students can successfully identify arguments they can begin to: • Evaluate the argument. Is it a good argument or is it a faulty argument? Are all the premises of the argument true? Are all the premises relevant to the conclusion? Does the conclusion follow from the premises? • Formulate arguments of their own. Do I have a view on this issue? What exactly is my view? What is the clearest way to state my view? What reasons can I give in support of my view? How does my view correspond with what the experts say, or the information currently available? What objections can I imagine others making in response to my view? • Think about the relationship between the language in which the argument was or is to be presented and the argument itself. What would be the most persuasive way to present my argument? What emotions should I be appealing to? |